Geochemical characteristics of geothermal fluids and water-rock interaction in geothermal reservoirs in and around the Gonghe Basin, Qinghai Province

doi:10.13745/j.esf.2020.1.14

Abstract

Abstract:

Investigations of the geochemical compositions of geothermal fluids as well as their movements and geneses are of great significance for the exploration and exploitation of hydrothermal resources. Currently, the exploitation and utilization of geothermal resources in Qinghai Province are not well developed, and more seriously, there is a lack of systematic studies on the geochemical features of the geothermal fluids there. The Gonghe Basin of Qinghai Province, located in the northern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, is a rift basin formed in the early Cenozoic where abundant geothermal resources occur. With the geothermal areas in and around the basin as the study areas, we determined the geochemical compositions of the geothermal fluids and investigated the water-rock interactions occurring in the reservoirs based on systematic geochemical sampling and subsequent hydrochemical analyses. The results showed that the SiO₂ concentrations of the geothermal waters displayed an increase trend from the Lower Pleistocene and Neogene reservoirs within the Gonghe Basin to the Ela and Waligong tectonic-magmatic belts, implying that the reservoir temperatures increased in the same way. The dissolution of primary aluminosilicate minerals and the formation of hydrothermally altered minerals in the reservoirs are the predominant hydrogeochemical processes controlling the concentrations of major cations in the geothermal waters, while the leaching of salty minerals during the infiltration of the recharging waters and the runoff and upflow of the geothermal waters made a substantial contribution to the occurrence of major anions, especially $SO 4 2 -$ and Cl^-.

Key words: geothermal fluid, hydrogeochemical characteristics, water-rock interaction, Gonghe Basin

CLC Number:

P641.3
P314

MA Yuehua, TANG Baochun, SU Shengyun, ZHANG Shengsheng, LI Chengying. Geochemical characteristics of geothermal fluids and water-rock interaction in geothermal reservoirs in and around the Gonghe Basin, Qinghai Province[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2020, 27(1): 123-133.

Figures/Tables 9

Table 1 In-situ parameters and hydrochemical compositions of geothermal water samples

样品编号	采样温度/℃	ρ_B/(mg·L^-1)												pH	EC /(μS·cm^-1)	阴阳离子平衡误差
样品编号	采样温度/℃	F	Cl	HCO₃	SO₄	B	Ca	K	Mg	Na	Li	SiO₂	TDS	pH	EC /(μS·cm^-1)	阴阳离子平衡误差
GH-G-001	67.0	3.60	678.4	603.8	135.6	26.40	45.7	12.1	1.8	576.5	9.1	58.20	1 921	7.73	3 807	-5.33
GH-G-002	39.0	1.70	611.5	323.8	140.8	1.60	19.7	4.4	7.8	481.2	0.2	25.30	1 410	8.08	2 806	-6.37
GH-G-003	38.5	2.50	489.2	404.6	205.3	6.10	10.2	3.0	3.8	482.4	0.5	22.90	1 386	8.23	2 769	-6.90
GH-G-004	27.5	0.40	771.7	165.6	262.5	0.80	47.9	6.4	13.9	495.8	0.2	24.40	1 619	7.57	3 239	-8.53
GH-G-005	40.7	0.30	812.7	130.5	270.4	0.70	48.3	6.5	11.5	509.7	0.2	26.60	1 698	7.98	3 392	-8.97
GH-G-006	26.9	0.20	264.3	157.4	186.0	0.50	43.8	4.3	17.6	234.3	0.2	24.00	813	8.35	1 683	-0.40
XH-G-001	60.2	6.70	132.7	148.7	319.1	2.20	33.0	19.6	4.2	255.2	1.3	100.10	852	7.74	1 709	1.62
XH-G-002	55.8	5.90	135.3	147.1	322.2	2.10	43.1	20.1	5.9	253.9	1.2	87.20	788.5	7.66	1 576	3.42
XH-G-003	55.6	5.40	131.5	158.4	315.9	2.40	49.2	22.7	6.9	268.6	1.1	91.30	823.8	7.61	1 648	7.29
XH-G-004	54.7	5.70	138.4	154.5	333.8	2.00	42.6	18.4	6.9	213.4	1.1	78.20	808.7	7.62	1 617	-5.66
XH-G-005	46.9	3.90	87.4	171.6	222.6	1.50	47.3	13.3	9.3	158.0	0.8	58.00	571	7.72	1 146	0.03
XH-G-006	47.0	9.40	170.9	151.9	397.0	2.40	28.0	20.9	2.1	272.5	1.5	97.80	950.4	8.26	1 903	-7.22
XH-C-001	5.3	0.74	21.8	225.59	34.9	0.32	55.3	3.6	13.6	20.1	0.0	10.37	220.3	7.74	441	-6.55
GD-G-001	83.8	8.80	686.5	74.1	216.2	7.20	35.9	43.7	1.1	484.6	8.9	229.70	1 620	7.83	3 241	-0.39
GD-G-002	64.3	9.20	745.2	76.8	232.0	6.30	32.1	38.9	1.1	434.8	9.5	203.70	1 405	8.09	2 804	-9.37
GD-G-003	42.1	8.00	674.4	70.5	208.7	6.70	34.0	40.8	0.9	449.0	9.8	216.90	1 553	8.55	3 105	-3.08
GD-G-004	86.2	9.00	715.3	76.5	221.3	6.30	31.2	38.6	0.9	425.8	9.4	209.70	1 653	8.07	3 299	-8.38
GD-G-005	19.7	1.80	136.0	400	163.5	1.30	50.1	5.3	32.2	240.7	0.9	19.70	750.9	7.57	1 504	6.35
GD-G-006	80.1	8.20	272.0	35.7	466.1	8.60	58.3	19.3	1.4	350.5	7.0	138.50	2 736	8.63	5 486	2.98
GD-G-007	69.2	8.30	283.6	50.6	477.3	7.80	55.4	16.0	0.8	310.7	5.3	118.40	1 164	8.26	2 328	-5.73

Table 1 In-situ parameters and hydrochemical compositions of geothermal water samples

样品编号	采样温度/℃	ρ_B/(mg·L^-1)												pH	EC /(μS·cm^-1)	阴阳离子平衡误差
样品编号	采样温度/℃	F	Cl	HCO₃	SO₄	B	Ca	K	Mg	Na	Li	SiO₂	TDS	pH	EC /(μS·cm^-1)	阴阳离子平衡误差
GH-G-001	67.0	3.60	678.4	603.8	135.6	26.40	45.7	12.1	1.8	576.5	9.1	58.20	1 921	7.73	3 807	-5.33
GH-G-002	39.0	1.70	611.5	323.8	140.8	1.60	19.7	4.4	7.8	481.2	0.2	25.30	1 410	8.08	2 806	-6.37
GH-G-003	38.5	2.50	489.2	404.6	205.3	6.10	10.2	3.0	3.8	482.4	0.5	22.90	1 386	8.23	2 769	-6.90
GH-G-004	27.5	0.40	771.7	165.6	262.5	0.80	47.9	6.4	13.9	495.8	0.2	24.40	1 619	7.57	3 239	-8.53
GH-G-005	40.7	0.30	812.7	130.5	270.4	0.70	48.3	6.5	11.5	509.7	0.2	26.60	1 698	7.98	3 392	-8.97
GH-G-006	26.9	0.20	264.3	157.4	186.0	0.50	43.8	4.3	17.6	234.3	0.2	24.00	813	8.35	1 683	-0.40
XH-G-001	60.2	6.70	132.7	148.7	319.1	2.20	33.0	19.6	4.2	255.2	1.3	100.10	852	7.74	1 709	1.62
XH-G-002	55.8	5.90	135.3	147.1	322.2	2.10	43.1	20.1	5.9	253.9	1.2	87.20	788.5	7.66	1 576	3.42
XH-G-003	55.6	5.40	131.5	158.4	315.9	2.40	49.2	22.7	6.9	268.6	1.1	91.30	823.8	7.61	1 648	7.29
XH-G-004	54.7	5.70	138.4	154.5	333.8	2.00	42.6	18.4	6.9	213.4	1.1	78.20	808.7	7.62	1 617	-5.66
XH-G-005	46.9	3.90	87.4	171.6	222.6	1.50	47.3	13.3	9.3	158.0	0.8	58.00	571	7.72	1 146	0.03
XH-G-006	47.0	9.40	170.9	151.9	397.0	2.40	28.0	20.9	2.1	272.5	1.5	97.80	950.4	8.26	1 903	-7.22
XH-C-001	5.3	0.74	21.8	225.59	34.9	0.32	55.3	3.6	13.6	20.1	0.0	10.37	220.3	7.74	441	-6.55
GD-G-001	83.8	8.80	686.5	74.1	216.2	7.20	35.9	43.7	1.1	484.6	8.9	229.70	1 620	7.83	3 241	-0.39
GD-G-002	64.3	9.20	745.2	76.8	232.0	6.30	32.1	38.9	1.1	434.8	9.5	203.70	1 405	8.09	2 804	-9.37
GD-G-003	42.1	8.00	674.4	70.5	208.7	6.70	34.0	40.8	0.9	449.0	9.8	216.90	1 553	8.55	3 105	-3.08
GD-G-004	86.2	9.00	715.3	76.5	221.3	6.30	31.2	38.6	0.9	425.8	9.4	209.70	1 653	8.07	3 299	-8.38
GD-G-005	19.7	1.80	136.0	400	163.5	1.30	50.1	5.3	32.2	240.7	0.9	19.70	750.9	7.57	1 504	6.35
GD-G-006	80.1	8.20	272.0	35.7	466.1	8.60	58.3	19.3	1.4	350.5	7.0	138.50	2 736	8.63	5 486	2.98
GD-G-007	69.2	8.30	283.6	50.6	477.3	7.80	55.4	16.0	0.8	310.7	5.3	118.40	1 164	8.26	2 328	-5.73

Fig.1 Geological map of the Gonghe Basin and distribution of representative geothermal water samples

Fig.2 Piper diagram of the geothermal water samples

Fig.3 Pie charts of major ions in geothermal waters from the Gonghe Basin as well as the Ela and Waligong tectonic-magmatic belts

Fig.4 Histograms of the average concentrations of Na+, Ca2+,Mg2+, HCO 3 -, Cl- and SO 4 2 - in the geothermal waters

Fig.5 Relationship between Ca2+and SO 4 2 - in the geothermal waters

Fig.6 Na+-K+-Mg2+ triangle diagram

Table 2 Traditional geothermometers. Adapted from [18].

地热温度计	代号	表达式
石英(Truesdell,1977)^[19]	温度计1	T=1 315/(5.205-lgm)-273.15
石英(Fournier,1977)^[7]	温度计2	T=1 309/(5.19-lgm)-273.15
石英(Rimstidt,1997)^[20]	温度计3	T=-1 107/(lgm+0.025 4)-273.5
石英(Verma等,1997)^[21]	温度计4	T=-44.119+0.244 69m-1.741 4×10^-4m²+79.305×lgm
玉髓(Fournier,1977)^[7]	温度计5	T=1 032/(4.69-lgm)-273.15
Na/K(Truesdell,1976)^[22]	温度计6	T=856/(lg(Na/K)+0.857)-273.15
Na/K(Fournier等,1979)^[16]	温度计7	T=1 217/(lg(Na/K)+1.483)-273.15
Na/K(Arnorsson,1983)^[23]	温度计8	T=933/(lg(Na/K)+0.993)-273.15
Na/K(Giggenbach,1988)^[14]	温度计9	T=1 390/(lg(Na/K)+1.75)-273.15
Na/K(Verma等,1997)^[21]	温度计10	T=1 289/(lg(Na/K)+1.615)-273.15
Na/K/Ca(Fournier,1979)^[16]	温度计11	$T = 1647 lg Na K + β lg Ca Na + 2.06 + 2.47 - 273.15$
Na/Li (Kharaka等,1982)^[24]	温度计12	T=1 590/(lg(Na/Li)+0.779)-273.15
Na/Li (Verma等,1997)^[21]	温度计13	T=1 049/(lg(Na/Li)+0.44)-273.15
Li/Mg(Kharaka等,1989)^[25]	温度计14	$T = 2200 lg Li Mg + 5.47 - 273.15$
K/Mg(Giggenbach,1988)^[14]	温度计15	$T = 4410 lg K Mg + 14.00 - 273.15$

Table 2 Traditional geothermometers. Adapted from [18].

地热温度计	代号	表达式
石英(Truesdell,1977)^[19]	温度计1	T=1 315/(5.205-lgm)-273.15
石英(Fournier,1977)^[7]	温度计2	T=1 309/(5.19-lgm)-273.15
石英(Rimstidt,1997)^[20]	温度计3	T=-1 107/(lgm+0.025 4)-273.5
石英(Verma等,1997)^[21]	温度计4	T=-44.119+0.244 69m-1.741 4×10^-4m²+79.305×lgm
玉髓(Fournier,1977)^[7]	温度计5	T=1 032/(4.69-lgm)-273.15
Na/K(Truesdell,1976)^[22]	温度计6	T=856/(lg(Na/K)+0.857)-273.15
Na/K(Fournier等,1979)^[16]	温度计7	T=1 217/(lg(Na/K)+1.483)-273.15
Na/K(Arnorsson,1983)^[23]	温度计8	T=933/(lg(Na/K)+0.993)-273.15
Na/K(Giggenbach,1988)^[14]	温度计9	T=1 390/(lg(Na/K)+1.75)-273.15
Na/K(Verma等,1997)^[21]	温度计10	T=1 289/(lg(Na/K)+1.615)-273.15
Na/K/Ca(Fournier,1979)^[16]	温度计11	$T = 1647 lg Na K + β lg Ca Na + 2.06 + 2.47 - 273.15$
Na/Li (Kharaka等,1982)^[24]	温度计12	T=1 590/(lg(Na/Li)+0.779)-273.15
Na/Li (Verma等,1997)^[21]	温度计13	T=1 049/(lg(Na/Li)+0.44)-273.15
Li/Mg(Kharaka等,1989)^[25]	温度计14	$T = 2200 lg Li Mg + 5.47 - 273.15$
K/Mg(Giggenbach,1988)^[14]	温度计15	$T = 4410 lg K Mg + 14.00 - 273.15$

Table 3 Estimated reservoir temperatures using a variety of geothermometers

取样编号	T/℃
取样编号	温度计1	温度计2	温度计3	温度计4	温度计5	温度计6	温度计7	温度计8	温度计9	温度计10	温度计11	温度计12	温度计13	温度计14	温度计15
GH-G-001	109.1	109.0	97.4	109.5	79.7	64.3	111.7	76.0	132.2	118.1	119.7	342.5	334.2	76.2	21.8
GH-G-002	72.8	72.6	57.4	73.3	40.9	22.5	72.4	34.6	93.7	79.6	91.5	108.8	44.1	235.8	37.5
GH-G-003	68.9	68.7	53.2	69.3	36.8	6.8	57.2	19.0	78.7	64.7	82.5	148.5	86.6	178.5	37.6
GH-G-004	71.3	71.1	55.8	71.8	39.3	38.5	87.7	50.5	108.7	94.6	98.8	107.2	42.4	251.6	36.7
GH-G-005	74.8	74.6	59.6	75.3	43.0	37.9	87.1	49.9	108.2	94.1	98.6	97.4	32.3	258.9	35.6
GH-G-006	70.7	70.4	55.1	71.1	38.7	56.7	104.7	68.5	125.3	111.3	103.0	126.8	63.1	274.0	41.6
XH-G-001	137.2	137.3	129.1	137.3	110.6	160.8	195.2	169.3	211.9	198.9	169.2	246.1	202.3	143.4	21.3
XH-G-002	129.7	129.7	120.5	129.8	102.2	163.8	197.7	172.2	214.2	201.3	168.5	237.8	191.8	153.5	22.5
XH-G-003	132.1	132.2	123.3	132.2	104.9	170.4	203.0	178.5	219.3	206.4	171.8	228.9	180.7	158.8	22.1
XH-G-004	123.9	123.9	113.9	124.1	95.8	172.1	204.4	180.1	220.6	207.8	169.9	245.3	201.3	158.9	23.9
XH-G-005	108.9	108.8	97.1	109.3	79.4	170.0	202.6	178.1	218.9	206.1	162.8	244.0	199.6	176.9	28.1
XH-G-006	135.9	135.9	127.6	136.0	109.1	160.7	195.1	169.2	211.8	198.8	171.7	251.2	208.7	127.5	17.8
GD-G-001	189.3	189.6	189.7	190.2	170.0	177.0	208.4	184.8	224.3	211.5	188.8	358.9	358.8	71.2	9.3
GD-G-002	180.9	181.2	179.8	181.6	160.3	176.2	207.7	184.0	223.6	210.9	187.4	378.2	388.6	69.3	10.1
GD-G-003	185.2	185.5	184.9	186.0	165.3	177.7	208.9	185.4	224.8	212.0	188.3	378.2	388.6	65.6	8.7
GD-G-004	182.9	183.2	182.2	183.6	162.6	177.5	208.7	185.2	224.6	211.9	188.0	380.1	391.4	67.2	9.4
GD-G-005	63.2	63.0	47.0	63.4	30.9	67.2	114.3	78.8	134.7	120.7	109.5	222.7	173.0	197.9	42.5
GD-G-006	156.1	156.2	150.8	156.2	131.8	131.4	170.7	141.2	188.8	175.4	153.4	368.3	373.2	79.5	16.8
GD-G-007	146.7	146.8	140.0	146.8	121.2	125.9	166.0	135.9	184.4	170.9	148.7	350.3	345.8	78.8	15.8

Table 3 Estimated reservoir temperatures using a variety of geothermometers

取样编号	T/℃
取样编号	温度计1	温度计2	温度计3	温度计4	温度计5	温度计6	温度计7	温度计8	温度计9	温度计10	温度计11	温度计12	温度计13	温度计14	温度计15
GH-G-001	109.1	109.0	97.4	109.5	79.7	64.3	111.7	76.0	132.2	118.1	119.7	342.5	334.2	76.2	21.8
GH-G-002	72.8	72.6	57.4	73.3	40.9	22.5	72.4	34.6	93.7	79.6	91.5	108.8	44.1	235.8	37.5
GH-G-003	68.9	68.7	53.2	69.3	36.8	6.8	57.2	19.0	78.7	64.7	82.5	148.5	86.6	178.5	37.6
GH-G-004	71.3	71.1	55.8	71.8	39.3	38.5	87.7	50.5	108.7	94.6	98.8	107.2	42.4	251.6	36.7
GH-G-005	74.8	74.6	59.6	75.3	43.0	37.9	87.1	49.9	108.2	94.1	98.6	97.4	32.3	258.9	35.6
GH-G-006	70.7	70.4	55.1	71.1	38.7	56.7	104.7	68.5	125.3	111.3	103.0	126.8	63.1	274.0	41.6
XH-G-001	137.2	137.3	129.1	137.3	110.6	160.8	195.2	169.3	211.9	198.9	169.2	246.1	202.3	143.4	21.3
XH-G-002	129.7	129.7	120.5	129.8	102.2	163.8	197.7	172.2	214.2	201.3	168.5	237.8	191.8	153.5	22.5
XH-G-003	132.1	132.2	123.3	132.2	104.9	170.4	203.0	178.5	219.3	206.4	171.8	228.9	180.7	158.8	22.1
XH-G-004	123.9	123.9	113.9	124.1	95.8	172.1	204.4	180.1	220.6	207.8	169.9	245.3	201.3	158.9	23.9
XH-G-005	108.9	108.8	97.1	109.3	79.4	170.0	202.6	178.1	218.9	206.1	162.8	244.0	199.6	176.9	28.1
XH-G-006	135.9	135.9	127.6	136.0	109.1	160.7	195.1	169.2	211.8	198.8	171.7	251.2	208.7	127.5	17.8
GD-G-001	189.3	189.6	189.7	190.2	170.0	177.0	208.4	184.8	224.3	211.5	188.8	358.9	358.8	71.2	9.3
GD-G-002	180.9	181.2	179.8	181.6	160.3	176.2	207.7	184.0	223.6	210.9	187.4	378.2	388.6	69.3	10.1
GD-G-003	185.2	185.5	184.9	186.0	165.3	177.7	208.9	185.4	224.8	212.0	188.3	378.2	388.6	65.6	8.7
GD-G-004	182.9	183.2	182.2	183.6	162.6	177.5	208.7	185.2	224.6	211.9	188.0	380.1	391.4	67.2	9.4
GD-G-005	63.2	63.0	47.0	63.4	30.9	67.2	114.3	78.8	134.7	120.7	109.5	222.7	173.0	197.9	42.5
GD-G-006	156.1	156.2	150.8	156.2	131.8	131.4	170.7	141.2	188.8	175.4	153.4	368.3	373.2	79.5	16.8
GD-G-007	146.7	146.8	140.0	146.8	121.2	125.9	166.0	135.9	184.4	170.9	148.7	350.3	345.8	78.8	15.8

References 28

[1]	郭万成, 时兴梅. 青海省贵德县(盆地)地热资源的开发利用[J]. 水文地质工程地质, 2008, 35(3):79-80, 92.
[2]	方斌, 周训, 梁四海. 青海贵德县扎仓温泉特征及其开发利用[J]. 现代地质, 2009, 23(1):57-63.
[3]	薛光琦, 钱辉, 姜枚, 等. 青藏高原东北部天然地震探测与岩石圈深部特征[J]. 地球学报, 2003, 24(1):19-26.
[4]	张保建. 鲁西北地区地下热水的水文地球化学特征及形成条件研究[D]. 北京: 中国地质大学(北京), 2011.
[5]	ELLIS A J, MAHON W J. Geochemistry and geothermal systems[M]. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
[6]	GIGGENBACH W F. Geothermal gas equilibria[J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1980, 44(12):2021-2032. DOI URL
[7]	FOURNIER R O. Chemical geothermometers and mixing models for geothermal systems[J]. Geothermics, 1977, 5:41-50. DOI URL
[8]	那金, 冯波, 兰乘宇, 等. CO₂化学刺激剂对增强地热系统热储层的改造作用[J]. 中南大学学报(自然科学版), 2014, 45(7):2447-2458.
[9]	许志琴, 姜枚, 杨经绥, 等. 青藏高原的地幔结构:地幔羽、地幔剪切带及岩石圈俯冲板片的拆沉[J]. 地学前缘, 2004, 11(4):329-343.
[10]	李永革. 青海省共和盆地恰卜恰地区地下热水水文地球化学特征及成因分析[D]. 抚州: 东华理工大学, 2016.
[11]	中华人民共和国环境保护部. 水质样品的保存和管理技术规定: HJ 493—2009[S].
[12]	中华人民共和国地质矿产部. 地下水质检验方法: DZ/T 0064.17—1993[S].
[13]	薛建球, 甘斌, 李百祥, 等. 青海共和—贵德盆地增强型地热系统(干热岩)地质-地球物理特征[J]. 物探与化探, 2013, 37(1):35-41.
[14]	GIGGENBACH W F. Geothermal solute equilibria: derivation of Na-K-Mg-Ca geoindicators[J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1988, 52(12):2749-2765. DOI URL
[15]	POPE L A, HAJASH A, POPP R K. An experimental investigation of the quartz, Na-K, Na-K-Ca geothermometers and the effects of fluid composition[J]. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 1987, 31(1/2):151-161. DOI URL
[16]	FOURNIER R O, POTTER R W. Magnesium correction to the Na-K-Ca chemical geothermometer[J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1979, 43(9):1543-1550. DOI URL
[17]	MINISSALE A A, DUCHI V. Geothermometry on fluids circulating in a carbonate reservoir in North-central Italy[J]. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 1988, 35(3):237-252. DOI URL
[18]	PIRLO M C. Hydrogeochemistry and geothermometry of thermal groundwaters from the Birdsville Track Ridge, Great Artesian Basin, South Australia[J]. Geothermics, 2004, 33(6):743-774. DOI URL
[19]	TRUESDELL A H. Chemical techniques in exploration, summary of section III [C]//Proceedings of the United Nations Symposium on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources. San Francisco, USA: US Geological Survey, 1977: 53-79.
[20]	RIMSTIDT J D. Quartz solubility at low temperatures[J]. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1997, 61:2553-2558. DOI URL
[21]	VERMA S P, SANTOYO E. New improved equations for Na/K, Na/Li and SiO₂ geothermometers by outlier detection and rejection[J]. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 1997, 79:9-23. DOI URL
[22]	TRUESDELL A H. Chemical techniques in exploration, summary of section III [C]//Proceedings of the United Nations Symposium on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources. San Francisco, USA: US Geological Survey, 1976: 3-29.
[23]	ARNÓRSSON S. Chemical equilibria in icelandic geothermal systems: implications for chemical geothermometry investigations[J]. Geothermics, 1983, 12:119-128. DOI URL
[24]	KHARAKA Y K, LICO M S, LAW L M. Chemical geothermometers applied to formation waters, Gulf of Mexico and California basins[J]. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 1982, 66:588.
[25]	KHARAKA Y K, MARINER R H. Chemical geothermometers and their application to formation waters from sedimentary basin [C]//NAESER N D, MCCOLLON T H. Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989: 99-117.
[26]	严维德, 王焰新, 高学忠, 等. 共和盆地地热能分布特征与聚集机制分析[J]. 西北地质, 2013, 46(4):223-230.
[27]	王斌, 何世豪, 李百祥, 等. 青海共和盆地地热资源分布特征兼述CSAMT在地热勘查中的作用[J]. 矿产与地质, 2010, 24(3):280-285.
[28]	李永祥, 李善平, 王树林, 等. 青海鄂拉山地区陆相火山岩地球化学特征及构造环境[J]. 西北地质, 2011, 44(4):23-32.