Secondary minerals in basalts of the Evevpenta gold occurrence (North Kamchatka, Russia) as indicators of ore forming processes

doi:10.13745/j.esf.sf.2023.7.1

Abstract

Abstract:

The mineralogy seen in propylitic alteration of basalt host rocks in the Evevpenta gold occurrence in North Kamchatka is based on a vein system consisting of quartz, adularia-quartz, quartz-carbonate veins, and, hydrothermal breccias hosted in dacite. Vein minerals are native gold, tellurides, sulfides, selenides, and Au-Ag chlorides. The propylitic alteration occurs at a distance from the epithermal veins; however, it contains characteristic mineral assemblages useful for the reconstruction of an ore-formation environment. Four distinct hydrothermal alteration assemblages are recognized within the propylitic zone: 1. fluorapatite-fluorine-aluminous titanite, 2. quartz-calcite-clinochlore, 3. quartz-calcite-stilbite-montmorillonite, and 4. calcite-mordenite. The earliest mineral assemblage was formed from an acid F-enriched hydrothermal fluid. The concentration of fluoride in fluid was 0.2-1.2 g/L, and temperature of about 550 ℃. The long-term interaction between the acid hydrothermal fluid and olivine basalt host rocks resulted in increasing pH to near neutral that caused a chloritization process. The chloritization stage hydrothermal fluid was enriched in Fe and Mg with temperatures of about 175-210 ℃, chlorite I, and 120-140 ℃, chlorite II. The final stage of alteration consists of zeolite group minerals, which were precipitated from the hydrothermal fluid of pH ~9 and temperature >135 ℃. The high pH of the hydrothermal fluid might be explained by the presence of bicarbonates and carbonates and removal of the iron salt from the solution. Based on the alteration mineral assemblages of the propylitic zone, the physical and chemical conditions of the Evevpenta vein system are discussed. The transport of ore elements took place due to the formation of precious metal Cl^- and OH^-complexes at the stage of hydrothermal system formation with circulation of alkaline sodium chloride solutions. Chalcogens were also transferred by high pH solutions.

Key words: mineralogy, gold, modernite, clinochlore, propylitic alteration, Evevpenta, Kamchatka

CLC Number:

Anastasiya SERGEEVA, Pavel ZHEGUNOV, Elena SKILSKAIA, Mariya NAZAROVA, Elena KARTASHEVA, Anna KUZMINA, Svetlana MOSKALEVA, Olesya ZOBENKO, Sharapat KUDAEVA, Ekaterina PLUTAKHINA, Kseniya SHISHKANOVA. Secondary minerals in basalts of the Evevpenta gold occurrence (North Kamchatka, Russia) as indicators of ore forming processes[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2023, 30(5): 450-468.

Figures/Tables 13

Fig.1 Geological scheme of (a) the Evevpenta gold occurrence and (b) volcanic belts of the Kamchatka Peninsula (Tsukanov 2015) 1-proluvial Quaternary sediments; 2-lavas and pyroclastic rocks of the Tolyatovayam volcanic formation (Late Miocene-Early Pliocene); 3-lavas and pyroclastic rocks of the Umuvayam volcanic formation (Middle-Late Miocene); 4-subvolcanic bodies of andesites of the Tolyatovayam volcanic formation; 5-basalt dikes Tolyatovayam volcanic formation; 6-subvolcanicdacite bodies Umuvayam volcanic formation; 7-argillic alteration; 8-propylitic alteration; 9-adularia-quartz stockwork; 10-adularia-quartz veins; 11-faults; 12-faults covered by Quaternary sediments.

Fig.2 Specimen of olivine basalt from a geological exploration surface mine working in the study area with radiant sun aggregates of modernite (a), and core samples obtained as a result of core drilling (depth 112-1145 m) of the Evevpenta ore occurrence representing a zone of propylitic alterations with calcite veins in basalt (b)

Fig.3 X-ray diffraction (XRD) diffractograms for alteration mineral assemblages of I-IV microzones from which sample of olivine basalt (abbreviations given in Table 1).

Table 1 Mineral assemblages found in hydrothermally altered olivine basalt from the Evevpenta gold occurrence

Stage	Mineral assemblages
I (host rock)	Rock-forming minerals: plagioclase (labradorite-andesine)+monoclinic pyroxene relicts of olivine Secondary minerals: fluorapatite+aluminum- and fluorine-rich titanite
II (chloritization)	Secondary minerals: clinochlore+quartz+calcite
III (zeolitization)	Secondary minerals: calcite+stilbite+quartz+montmorillonite
IV (zeolitization)	Secondary minerals: calcite+mordenite

Table 2 Composition and unit-cell parameters of secondary minerals from the Evevpenta gold occurrence

Mineral name, Symmetry group	Chemical Formula	Unit-cell parameters/Å
Clinochlore, C₂	[Mg_3.29Al_1.30Fe_1.13Mn_0.04][Al_0.74Si_3.26]O₁₀(OH)₈	a: 5.36 b: 9.20 c: 14.24 β: 95.59
Calcite R-3/2c	CaCO₃	a: 4.99 c: 17.02
Mordenite, Cmcm	Na_0.47Ca_0.25K_0.05[Al_1.05Si_4.95]O₁₂·nH₂O	a: 18.13 b: 20.43 c: 7.52
Diopside, C2/c	[Mg_0.84Ca_0.83Fe_0.25Na_0.02Al_0.02Ti_0.02Mn_0.01]Al_0.12Si_1.88O₆	a:9.82 b:8.87 c: 5.23 β:105.79
Labradorite-andesine, C-1	A $n 0.660.48$	a:8.17 b: 12.85 c:7.10 α: 93.45 β: 116.04 γ: 90.12

Table 2 Composition and unit-cell parameters of secondary minerals from the Evevpenta gold occurrence

Mineral name, Symmetry group	Chemical Formula	Unit-cell parameters/Å
Clinochlore, C₂	[Mg_3.29Al_1.30Fe_1.13Mn_0.04][Al_0.74Si_3.26]O₁₀(OH)₈	a: 5.36 b: 9.20 c: 14.24 β: 95.59
Calcite R-3/2c	CaCO₃	a: 4.99 c: 17.02
Mordenite, Cmcm	Na_0.47Ca_0.25K_0.05[Al_1.05Si_4.95]O₁₂·nH₂O	a: 18.13 b: 20.43 c: 7.52
Diopside, C2/c	[Mg_0.84Ca_0.83Fe_0.25Na_0.02Al_0.02Ti_0.02Mn_0.01]Al_0.12Si_1.88O₆	a:9.82 b:8.87 c: 5.23 β:105.79
Labradorite-andesine, C-1	A $n 0.660.48$	a:8.17 b: 12.85 c:7.10 α: 93.45 β: 116.04 γ: 90.12

Table 3 Absorption bands of host rock and mordenite-calcite assemblages (T: Si Al)

Absorption bands/cm^-1		Assignment	Mineral
Chloritized basalt	Mordenite sample	Assignment	Mineral
	3596	ν(H₂O)	Mordenite
3561		ν(OH)	Clinochlore
	3448	ν(H₂O)	Mordenite
3422			Clinochlore
	3258	ν(H₂O)	Mordenite
1638	1646	δ(H₂O)	Mordenite Clinochlore
1440	1426	ν₃(CO₃)	Calcite
	1223	ν(SiO₄)_as	Mordenite
	1174	ν(SiO₄)_as	Mordenite
	1052	ν(SiO₄)_as	Mordenite
1022		ν(TO₄)_as	Plagioclase
	877	ν₂(CO₃)	Calcite
	794	ν(TO₄)_s	Mordenite
	714	ν(AlO₄)_s	Mordenite
776		ν(SiO₄)	Plagioclase
639		δ(O-T-O)	Plagioclase
	622	ν(TO₄) 5-rings (channel)	Mordenite
586		δ(O-T-O)	Plagioclase
540		δ(O-T-O)	Plagioclase
	550	ν(TO₄) 5-rings (channel)	Mordenite
	451	δ(O-T-O)	Mordenite
460		δ(O-T-O)	SiO₄-phase
439		δ(O-T-O)	Plagioclase
400		δ(O-T-O)	Plagioclase

Fig.4 Infrared spectra of altered basalt (1) and mordenite in association with calcite (2)

Fig.5 BSE-images showing mordenite enclosed in silica (a); Sr-bearing barite (b); and inclusion of Sb-bearing phase in mordenite (c) Abbreviations of minerals given according to Warr (2021): Mor-mordenite; Silicate-silica minerals; Sr-Brt-Sr-bearing barite.

Fig.6 Representative BSE images of hydrothermally altered basalts from the Evevpenta gold occurrence a-plagioclase phenocrysts are rimmed by several layers of secondary minerals; b-enlarged fragment of 6a showing details of a chlorite rim in plagioclase; c-plagioclase microlites overgrown by titanite and adularia; d-inclusion of fluorapatite in diopside; e-fluorapatite and silica minerals intergrown with clinochlore; f-amygdala filled with early (Chl I) and late (Chl II) chlorite; g-titanomagnetite in association with groundmass diopside and plagioclase; h-aluminum- and fluorine-rich titanite between plagioclase microlites in groundmass. Abbreviations of minerals given according to Warr (2021): Pl-plagioclase, Chl-chlorite, Tnt-titanite, Adl-adularia, Cpx-clinopyroxene, Ap-apatite, Mag-magnetite, Silicate-silica minerals, Ca-Pl-calcic plagioclase, Na-Pl-sodic plagioclase.

Table 4 EPMA data for minerals from altered basalt

Minerals	w_B/%
Minerals	Al₂O₃	CaO	F	TFeO	K₂O	MgO	MnO	Na₂O	P₂O₅	SiO₂	TiO₂	V₂O₅
Fluorapatite	0	53.45	3.71	0.65	0	0.52	0	0	40.19	0.49	0	0
Diopside	3.3	20.93	0	7.96	0	15.06	0.29	0.27	0	50.41	0.88	0
Clinochlore	16.71	1.02	0	12.74	0	21.63	0.63	0	0	33.22	0	0
Plagioclase	28.31-20.51	11.21-1.57	0	0.97-0.61	1.06-1.72	0.00-0.32	0	4.34-8.91	0	53.16-61.91	0	0
Sanidine	20.17	1.19	0	0.62	9.69	0	0	3.96	0	63.95	0	0
Titanite	6.16	27.04	1.67	1.39	0	0	0	0	0	32.81	27.17	1.09

Fig.7 Classification diagrams of chlorite from the Evevpenta gold occurrence, based on: a-Fe/(Fe+Mg) versus Si values (after Hey 1954); b-octahedral Al versus tetrahedral Al; c-Mg/(Fe+Mg) versus Al octahedral (after Bailey 1988); d-(Mg+Fe) versus Si values (Wiewióra and Weiss 1990; Ilalova and Gulbin 2019)

Fig.8 Scheme of geocrystallochemical classification of chlorites (Kotelnikov et al., 2009) 1-chlorites from kimberlites; 2-Mg-chlorites from serpentinites; 3-Mg-chlorites from halites and Mg-K-salts of high stages of salinization of basins; 4-Fe-Mg-chlorites of basic igneous rocks; 5-Fe-Mg-chlorites of clastogenic formations; 6-Fe-chlorites of iron ores; 7-ditrioctahedral Al-Fe-Mg-chlorites; 8-Mg-chlorites of evaporate chemogenic-terigenous formations; 9-chlorites of the Evevpenta gold occurrence.

Fig.9 Scheme of the stages of mineral formation of the Evevpenta ore occurrence based on alteration mineral assemblages I-fluorapatite aluminum- and fluorine-rich titanite mineral assemblages, the hydrothermal acidic fluid was accompanied by acid-volatile species such as HCl and HF; II-clinochlore quartz calcite mineral assemblages, the hydrothermal fluid was near-neutral containing NaCl, CO2, NaHCO3; III-calcite stilbite mordenite quartz montmorillonite mineral assemblages, the hydrothermal fluid was alkaline containing NaCl, NaHCO3, Na2CO3 and meteoric waters.

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