Distribution and hydrogeochemical characteristics of hot springs in northeastern Tibetan Plateau

doi:10.13745/j.esf.sf.2024.7.17

Abstract

Abstract:

The Tibetan Plateau is the most active geothermal area in China, and its northeastern region is traditionally considered to be on a relatively stable landmass with average geothermal endowment conditions. Within this region, Qinghai Province possesses a complete range of geothermal resources. Previous studies have been mainly focused on the areas with high levels of exploration or with high-temperature hot springs, yet the overall distribution characteristics of geothermal resources and the heat sources are poorly understood. In this paper, the hot springs are divided into 11 districts from NE to SW according to the main heat-control activity fractures and hot springs areas, and the distribution characteristics and formation of hot springs are comprehensively studied by means of hydrogeochemistry and isotope analysis. The results showed that atmospheric precipitation and snow/ice melt were the source of hot springs recharge. The chemical characteristics of hot spring water were related to the stratigraphy of the hot springs. In granite, chert and sandstone hot springs the dominant cation/anions were Na+/ $SO 4 2 -$ -Cl^-, Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺/ $HCO 3 -$ and Ca²⁺-Na⁺-Mg²⁺/Cl^-- $SO 4 2 -$ - $HCO 3 -$ , respectively. Hot springs were mainly distributed along the fracture lines-resembling a string of beads, and concentrated at intersections of different tectonic units, or at bends of tectonic units. Areas between the primary and secondary fractures had the largest thermal-storage depth, the longest runoff path, and more adequate water-rock reactions; whilst the opposites were found along the ternary fractures. From NE to SW, the temperatures of geothermal reservoirs were high in the central areas and SW, and low in the S and NE, and the medium- and high-temperature reservoirs mainly distributed in Gonghe, Guide, Wulan and Tanggula Mountain areas, with the reservoir temperatures ranging from 89.0 ℃ to 139.0 ℃, averaging 117.7 ℃. The heat sources of hot springs included heat gain by conduction of Earth heat flow; heat from the decay of radioactive elements; residual heat from magma; frictional heat from fault ruptures; and heat from low-velocity-high-conductivity melts and mantle channel flow. With focuses on the distribution pattern of hydrothermal resources and heat source of hot springs, this study can provide a reference basis for the later development and utilization of geothermal resources in Qinghai.

Key words: northeastern Tibetan Plateau, hydrogeochemistry, geothermometer, silica-enthalpy diagram, thermal control fractures

CLC Number:

LIU Lingxia, LU Rui, XIE Wenping, LIU Bo, WANG Yaru, YAO Haihui, LIN Wenjing. Distribution and hydrogeochemical characteristics of hot springs in northeastern Tibetan Plateau[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2024, 31(6): 173-195.

Figures/Tables 15

Fig.1 Simplified geologic map of Qinghai Province and location of hot springs. Modified after [29].

Table 1 Chemical and hydrogen oxygen isotopic compositions of hot spring water samples

Fig.2 Silicon-enthalpy model diagram for hot spring water in the study area. Adapted from [41].

Fig.3 Piper trilinear diagram for the studied water samples

Fig.5 Gibbs diagrams for the studied water samples

Fig.4 Relationship between Ca2+ and SO 4 2 - in hot spring water in the study area

Table 2 Ion characteristic coefficients for hot spring water in the study area

分区	特征系数			特征系数平均值
分区	γ(Na⁺)/γ(Cl)	γ(Cl^-)/γ(Ca²⁺)	γ(Cl^-)/γ( $HCO 3 -$ )	γ(Na⁺)/γ(Cl^-)	γ(Cl^-)/γ(Ca²⁺)	γ(Cl^-)/γ( $HCO 3 -$ )
Ⅰ区	1.77~5.88	0.04~33.87	0.01~0.40	3.63	4.70	0.11
Ⅱ区	1.45~5.56	0.07~56.47	0.01~8.80	2.88	15.95	1.43
Ⅲ区	1.10~6.07	4.99~136.05	0.73~23.32	3.20	35.12	7.82
Ⅳ区	0.92~2.44	1.56~41.33	0.74~21.75	1.52	18.93	9.07
Ⅴ区	0.71~1.79	0.21~41.12	0.05~3.66	1.35	12.66	1.46
Ⅵ区	14.42~26.33	0.64~13.37	0.03~0.06	19.04	5.12	0.04
Ⅶ区	1.61~8.04	0.03~6.43	0.01~0.14	4.78	1.33	0.07
Ⅷ区	9.01~22.24	0.21~0.85	0.03~0.09	12.63	0.60	0.06
Ⅸ区	1.00~16.84	0.01~0.52	0.02~0.12	5.91	0.18	0.07
Ⅹ区	1.11~6.21	0.97~21.91	0.13~5.03	2.21	10.80	2.26
Ⅺ区	5.91~13.89	0.23~1.43	0.16~0.26	8.20	0.61	0.19

Table 2 Ion characteristic coefficients for hot spring water in the study area

分区	特征系数			特征系数平均值
分区	γ(Na⁺)/γ(Cl)	γ(Cl^-)/γ(Ca²⁺)	γ(Cl^-)/γ( $HCO 3 -$ )	γ(Na⁺)/γ(Cl^-)	γ(Cl^-)/γ(Ca²⁺)	γ(Cl^-)/γ( $HCO 3 -$ )
Ⅰ区	1.77~5.88	0.04~33.87	0.01~0.40	3.63	4.70	0.11
Ⅱ区	1.45~5.56	0.07~56.47	0.01~8.80	2.88	15.95	1.43
Ⅲ区	1.10~6.07	4.99~136.05	0.73~23.32	3.20	35.12	7.82
Ⅳ区	0.92~2.44	1.56~41.33	0.74~21.75	1.52	18.93	9.07
Ⅴ区	0.71~1.79	0.21~41.12	0.05~3.66	1.35	12.66	1.46
Ⅵ区	14.42~26.33	0.64~13.37	0.03~0.06	19.04	5.12	0.04
Ⅶ区	1.61~8.04	0.03~6.43	0.01~0.14	4.78	1.33	0.07
Ⅷ区	9.01~22.24	0.21~0.85	0.03~0.09	12.63	0.60	0.06
Ⅸ区	1.00~16.84	0.01~0.52	0.02~0.12	5.91	0.18	0.07
Ⅹ区	1.11~6.21	0.97~21.91	0.13~5.03	2.21	10.80	2.26
Ⅺ区	5.91~13.89	0.23~1.43	0.16~0.26	8.20	0.61	0.19

Fig.6 δD vs. δ18O plots for the studied water samples

Fig.7 δD and δ18O vs. latitude relationship of hot spring water samples from the Qinghai

Table 3 Hot spring water recharge elevation in each district

温泉分区及编号		温泉口高程/m	δ¹⁸O/‰	补给区高程/m	温泉分区及编号		温泉口高程/m	δ¹⁸O/‰	补给区高程/m
Ⅰ区	11	3 771	-9.10	4 271	Ⅳ区	22	4 282	-11.70	5 525
	13	3 776	-8.30	4 009		23	3 945	-11.60	5 155
	14	3 630	-10.00	4 430		35	3 790	-12.20	5 200
	15	3 824	-8.90	4 257	Ⅴ区	37	3 969	-11.20	5 046
	16	3 460	-9.10	3 960	Ⅴ区	89	3 860	-11.90	5 170
Ⅱ区	1	2 281	-10.50	3 928	Ⅵ区	82	4 076	-13.9	5 343
	4	2 891	-9.70	4 271	Ⅶ区	63	4 226	-14.40	5 659
	5	2 980	-10.00	4 460		64	4 331	-14.20	5 698
	8	2 317	-10.99	4 127		54	3 997	-14.00	5 297
Ⅲ区	26	2 436	-10.00	3 297		55	4 219	-14.20	5 586
	27	2 492	-10.90	3 603	Ⅹ区	60	4 281	-15.60	5 809
	28	3 235	-12.30	4 735	Ⅸ区	78	3 978	-15.60	5 506
	32	2 890	-12.1	4 334		61	4 548	-16.30	6 270
	33	3 726	-10.6	4 754		79	3 940	-15.70	5 496

Fig.8 Na-K-Mg ternary diagram for the studied water samples

Fig.9 Typical SI—T curves for various minerals in selected water samples from each district

Table 4 Geothermal temperature and circulation depth estimation results

Table 5 Mixing proportion of cold water in hot springs in the study area

温泉编号	冷水混入比例/%	温泉温度/℃	温泉编号	冷水混入比例/%	温泉温度/℃	温泉编号	冷水混入比例/%	温泉温度/℃
Ⅰ区			Ⅳ区			Ⅷ区
11	87.3	32	22	56.4	78	48	60.8	65
12		14	23	71.0	64	49	73.5	35
13	95.1	11	24		50	52	33.8	63
14	73.9	46	34	62.4	87	Ⅸ区
15	81.9	40	35	74.5	67	58	82.5	21
16	82.5	20	36	75.6	44	59	63.4	21
17	73.2	15.3	Ⅴ区			61	45.6	30
18	94.7	13	37		35	78	67.4	27
Ⅱ区			38	88.6	39	79	73.1	38
1		15	89		18	67	89.7	18
2		12.7	91	57.4	27.5	Ⅹ区
3		18	Ⅵ区			68	89.4	25
4	83.6	25	82		45	69	35.2	25
5	65.0	43	83	65.0	42	70	88.3	57
6	82.7	22	86	66.9	45	72	92.5	59
8	83.0	22	Ⅶ区			73	63.6	27
Ⅲ区			51		12.5	74	48.8	62
26	45.9		54		24	75	84.0	24
27	37.3	98	55	84.2	34	76	69.7	40
28	66.9	67	56	79.2	33	77	62.8	46
29	88.0	25.3	57	53.4	65	Ⅺ区
30	58.2	37	63	82.3	27	42	78.8	63
31	63.7	76	64	79.2	24	43	64.7	68
32	77.6	51	66	86.7	19	44	60.5	67
			80	82.0	23.5	45		46
			81	53.5	26

Fig.10 Heat sources for hot springs in Qinghai

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