图1 关于青藏高原隆升的部分地球动力学模型(据文献[2,3,4,5,6])

Fig.1 Selected geodynamic models describing the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. Modified after [2-6].

图2 Kind(2002)、Kumar(2006)等研究结果之间的比较(据文献[8,9]) (a)Kind(2002)的结果认为,亚洲岩石圈地幔由北向南俯冲到青藏高原之下,没有发现印度岩石圈地幔由南向北俯冲;(b)Kumar等(2006)的结果,发现印度岩石圈由南向北俯冲到青藏高原之下。

Fig.2 Comparison of research results by Kind et al. (2002) vs. Kumar et al. (2006) (adapted from [8-9]). (a) Kind et al. (2002) suggest a N-W subduction of the Asian lithospheric mantle beneath the Tibetan Plateau, finding no S-N subduction of the Indian lithospheric mantle. (b) Kumar et al. (2006) show a S-N subduction of the Indian lithosphere beneath the Tibetan Plateau.

图3 “羚羊计划(ANTILOPE)”及其进展

Fig.3 The ANTILOPE Project and its progress

图4 喜马拉雅西构造结地震台站分布

Fig.4 Distribution of seismic stations in the western Himalayan syntaxis

图5 帕米尔高原东部A-A’剖面的成像结果所揭示的西构造结东部的壳幔结构和径向各向异性参数特征 左上图显示了A-A’剖面的位置和200 km深度的速度扰动。

Fig.5 Characteristics of crust-mantle structure and radial anisotropy parameters revealed by the seismographic imaging of the A-A’ profile in the eastern Pamir Plateau. The top left panel shows the location of the A-A’ profile and the velocity perturbations at 200 km depth.

图6 帕米尔高原东部沿A-A’,B-B’和C-C’三条剖面的接收函数共转换点叠加图像(据文献[18]) 黑色的圆点表示剖面两侧50 km范围内的中深源地震分布,图6a中的绿色线表示Moho异常的位置。

Fig.6 (a) Simplified geological map of the study area and (b-d) common conversion point images of receiver functions along cross-sections A-A’, B-B’ and C-C’(adapted from [18]). The black circles are the projected intermediate-depth earthquakes perpendicular to the profile within 50 km. The green lines in Fig.6a highlight the anomalous locations of the Moho depth.

图7 喜马拉雅西构造结之下碰撞板块构造格局

Fig.7 Configurations of colliding plates below the West Himalayan syntaxis

图8 ANTILOPE-I 剖面S波接收函数叠加图像(据文献[21]) 红色表示正的振幅,表明速度随深度发生跳跃式增加;蓝色表示负的振幅,表明速度随深度急剧减小。莫霍面和LAB以虚线标出。每条剖面的上方标有地形高程和沿剖面的主要缝合线和断裂的位置。MBT—主边界逆冲断层;MCT—主中央逆冲断层;YZS—雅鲁藏布缝合带;BNS—班公—怒江缝合带;JRS—金沙江缝合带;ATF—阿尔金断裂。

Fig.8 S receiver function (S-RF) along ANTILOPE-I profile (adapted after [21]). Red (blue) color represents the positive (negative) amplitudes, indicating the velocity jump increases (decreases) with depth; The Moho and LAB phases are marked by dashed lines. The elevation is plotted at the top panel, together with the position of the major sutures and faults. MBT, Main Boundary Thrust; MCT, Main Central Thrust; YZS, Yarlong-Zangbo Suture, BNS, Bangong-Nujiang Suture; JRS, Jinsha-River Suture; ATF, Altyn-Tagh Fault.

图9 ANTILOPE-I 剖面P波接收函数共转换点叠加图像(据文献[21]) 该图的上端为沿剖面的地形起伏;地形下面的蓝线和红线分别代表由S波接收函数所确定的印度板块和亚洲板块的位置。

Fig.9 P receiver function (P-RF) CCP image along ANTILOPE-I profile (adapted after [21]). Topographic feature is shown in the top panel. Blue and green bars below the top panel mark the positions of the Indian and Asian Plates, respectively, as determined by the S receiver functions.

图10 地幔过渡带受到温度扰动时的行为方式

Fig.10 Behavior of the mantle transition zone when subjected to temperature perturbations

图11 ANTILOPE-II剖面S波接收函数叠加图像(据文献[21])

Fig.11 S receiver functions along ANTILOPE-II profile.Adapted from [21].

图12 ANTILOPE-II 剖面P波接收函数共转换点叠加图像(据文献[21]) 该图的上端为沿剖面的地形起伏;地形下面的蓝线和红线分别代表由S波接收函数所确定的印度板块和西藏板块的位置。

Fig.12 P-RF CCP image along ANTILOPE-II profile (adapted after [21]). Topography is depicted in the top panel. Blue and red bars below the top panel mark the positions of the Indian and Tibetan Plates, respectively, as determined by the S receiver functions.

图13 INDEPTH剖面的P波接收函数共转换点叠加图像(据文献[8-9,21]) 地形下方的蓝、红、绿线分别代表由S波接收函数所确定的印度板块、西藏板块和亚洲板块的位置,Moho下方的虚线代表正在俯冲的印度和亚洲岩石圈地幔的顶界面。

Fig.13 P-RF CCP image along INDEPTH profile (adapted after [8-9,21]). Blue, red and green bars below the topographic panel (top) mark the positions of the Indian, Tibetan and Asian Plates, respectively, as determined by the S receiver functions. Black dashed lines below the Moho represent the top interfaces of the subducting Indian and Asian mantle lithospheres.

图14 印度板块与欧亚板块在高原之下的碰撞边界(据文献[21,33]) 蓝色和绿色的线段与箭头分别标记观察到的印度(IML)和亚洲(AML)板块的LAB;黄色框标记的观测到的正常的410 km, 而红色方框标记转换震相走时延迟的410 km;黑色线段表示青藏高原北缘Moho深度跳跃的位置;红色虚线标志着Sn波缺失的区域(据文献[33])。QBF:柴达木盆地断裂。

Fig.14 Collision boundary between the Indian and Eurasia continents beneath the Tibetan Plateau (adapted from [21]). Blue and green bars with arrows mark the LAB observations of the Indian and Asian Plates, respectively. Yellow boxes mark the normal observations of the 410 km discontinuity, while red boxes mark the late arrivals of the converted phases from the 410 km discontinuity. Black bars denote sharp step in Moho depth at the northern margins of Tibet. Red dashed line marks zone of poor Sn propagation (adapted from [33]). QBF, Qaidam Basin Fault.

图15 印度、西藏和亚洲地幔岩石圈关系卡通图 该图展示了印度板块俯冲角度与水平距离的东西向变化特点。印度地幔岩石圈标记为蓝色,亚洲地幔岩石圈标记为绿色。红色区域代表破碎带,它是夹持在印度和亚洲板块之间的特殊岩石圈区域。

Fig.15 Relationship between the mantle lithospheres of India, Tibet and Asia, showing the west-east variations of the subduction angle and horizontal advancing distance of the Indian Plate. Blue and green colors represent the Indian and Asian mantle lithospheres, respectively. Red color marks the crash zone, which is a special lithospheric region sandwiched between the Indian and Asian Plates.

图16 青藏高原碰撞板块的构造格局

Fig.16 Tectonic framework of colliding plates in the Tibetan Plateau

图17 观测剖面的位置图 黑线表示剖面位置,红线表示断层。每条剖面上的星号代表爆炸点,红色星号代表确定塔里木盆地和周边造山带关系的爆炸点。TP—青藏高原;TB—塔里木盆地;QB—柴达木盆地;JB—准噶尔盆地;AOB—阿尔泰造山带;CTS—天山中部;ETS—东部天山;AS—阿尔金山;KS—昆仑山;KKS—喀喇昆仑山。

Fig.17 Map of the observation profile locations. Black lines denote the profile locations. Red lines indicate faults. Stars on each profile mark the shot points, with the red ones defining the relationship between the Tarim Basin and the surrounding orogenic belt. TP, Tibetan Plateau; TB, Tarim Basin; QB, Qaidam Basin; JB, Junggar Basin; AOB, Altai orogenic belt; CTS, Central Tien Shan; ETS, Eastern Tien Shan; AS, Altyn Tagh Shan; KS, KunLun Shan; KKS, Karakorum Shan.

图18 沿沙雅-布尔津剖面(XB)的地壳和上地幔顶部的结构与构造解释剖面(据文献[42]) 上图为高程(实线)和布格重力异常(虚线)。下部为岩石圈结构。地震剖面和爆炸点的位置如图17所示。LVZs代表低速区。实线是深地震测深、大地电磁测深和重力反演确定的界面。高倾角线是由地震测深、大地电磁测深和重力分析确定的断层。

Fig.18 Structure of the crust and uppermost mantle and tectonic interpretation along XB line (adapted from [42]). The upper panel shows the elevation (solid line) and Bouguer anomaly (dotted line). The lower panel shows the lithospheric structure. The locations of the seismic section and the shot points are shown in Fig.17. LVZs represent low velocity zones. Interfaces (solid lines) and faults (lines with high angles) are determined by deep seismic sounding, MT sounding, and gravitational inversion.

图19 巴音布鲁克爆炸点地震数据及模拟实例 (a) 巴音布鲁克爆炸点折合地震记录截面。爆炸点(0桩号)位于天山造山带南侧(爆炸点位置见图17中红色三角),接收点位于天山造山带的南缘、天山和准噶尔盆地南缘。被记录到的所有的地震信号来自同一个时刻的同一个爆炸点。横轴代表震中距,纵轴为折合走时,折合速度为6 km/s。使用120 Hz的带通滤波器以及窗口为2秒的自动增溢控制。粗实线表示已识别的有效地震相。细线的水平直线为0时刻的参考线。所有观测到的震相的旅行时间构成了射线追踪和合成地震计算的输入数据。(b) 计算理论振幅。(c) 旅行时拟合。实测到时以类椭圆符号表示,理论计算到时用叉型符号表示,二者的旅行时均以6 km/s的速度折合。(d) 射线追踪。纵轴为深度(km),粗线为地震界面,它们由地震震相模拟确定。

Fig.19 Seismic data and modeling example of SP Byblk. (a) Seismic records of SP Byblk. The shot point (at 0 km) is located in the southern part of the Tien Shan Orogenic Belt (see Fig.17 for SP location) and the receivers were deployed in the northern margin of the Tarim Basin, the Tien Shan Orogenic Belt and the southern margin of the Junggar Basin. All recorded seismic signals came from the same shot point at the same moment. The vertical axis indicates the travel time was reduced by 6 km/s. A 1-20 Hz bandpass filter and automatic gain control with 2 s window were applied. The thick solid lines show the identified effective seismic phases. The thin horizontal straight line at time of 0 s is a reference line. Travel times of all observed phases constitute the input data for ray tracing and synthetic seismogram. (b) Calculated theoretical amplitude. (c) Travel time fitting. The measured and calculated travel times reduced by 6 km/s are marked with ellipse and cross symbols, respectively. (d) Ray tracing. The vertical axis indicates depth in km. The thick lines are interfaces determined by modeling of the seismic phases. The horizontal axis indicates offset distance from the shot point.

图20 沿库尔勒—吉木萨尔剖面(KJ)的壳幔结构与构造解释剖面 (a)沿剖面的地形起伏(黑色实线)和布格重力异常(蓝色虚线)。(b)沿剖面的速度结构和地球动力学模型。实线是由地震测深和重磁联合反演所确定的界面。剖面顶端的倒三角表示爆炸点。莫霍下面的箭头表示莫霍面的运动方向。细的虚线是速度等值线。地震剖面和炮点的位置见图17。TOB—天山造山带。

Fig.20 Crust-mantle structure and tectonic interpretation along KJ line. (a) Elevation (black solid line) and Bouguer anomaly (blue dotted line) along KJ line. (b) Velocity structure and geodynamic model along this section. Solid lines are interfaces determined by deep seismic sounding and joint inversion of gravity and geomagnetism. Inverted triangles at the top of the profile denote shots. Arrows below the Moho indicate Moho movement direction. Thin dotted lines are velocity contours. Locations of the seismic section and the shot points are shown in Fig.17. TOB, Tien Shan Orogenic Belt.

图21 和硕爆炸点地震数据和模拟实例 爆炸点(0 km)位于天山造山带的南部,接收点设置在塔里木盆地的北部边缘,天山造山带和准噶尔盆地的南缘。炮点和地震剖面的位置如图17所示。横轴表示从炮点到接收点的偏移距离。条带图a, b, c, d与图19中描述的相同。

Fig.21 Seismic data and modeling example for SP HOXUD. Shot point (at 0 km) lies in the southern part of Tien Shan Orogenic Belt and the receivers were set up in the northern margin of the Tarim Basin, the Tien Shan Orogenic Belt and the southern margin of the Junggar Basin. Locations of the shot and the seismic section are indicated in Fig.17. The horizontal axis represents offset distance from the shot point. Other descriptions are the sam as those in Fig.19.

图22 沿拜城-大柴旦剖面(BD)的地壳与上地幔顶部速度结构与构造解释剖面(据文献[44]) 方框范围内的精细结构见图23。

Fig.22 Velocity structure of crust and upperomot mantle and tectonic interpretation along BD line (adapted from [44]). The fine structure within the box is shown in Fig.23.

图23 油沙山爆炸点地震数据和模拟实例(据文献[44]) 爆炸点(0 km)位于柴达木盆地阿尔金断裂以南(爆炸点位置见图17)。接收点分布在塔里木盆地、阿尔金山和柴达木盆地。其他图例描述和图19相同。ATR:阿尔金山。

Fig.23 Seismic data and modeling example for SP Yousha Shan (adapted from [44]). The shot point ( at 0 km) is located south of the Altyn Tagh fault in the Qaidam Basin (See Fig.17 for shot point location). The receivers were located in the Tarim Basin, Altyn Tagh Range and Qaidam Basin. Other descriptions are the same as in Fig.19. ATR, Altyn Tagh Range.

图24 剖面位置(左图)与塔里木地块与周围造山带之间地壳和地幔岩石圈沿4条剖面相互作用的卡通图(右图)(据文献[19]) 地壳均以黄色表示,不同单元的地幔岩石圈以不同颜色表示:塔里木盆地为浅绿色;准噶尔盆地为深绿色;天山为红色;青藏高原为蓝色。黑色箭头表示移动方向。缩写与图17相同。

Fig.24 Map showing the locations of the profiles (left panel) and cartoons of the interaction of the crust and mantle lithosphere between the Tarim Block and the surrounding orogenic belts along four profiles (adapted from [19]). The crust is uniformly shown in yellow, and the mantle lithosphere of different units is shown in different colors: light green for the Tarim Basin, dark green for the Junggar Basin, red for the Tien Shan, and blue for the Tibetan Plateau. Black arrows indicate the moving direction. The acronyms are the same as in Fig.17.

图25 (a)在以稳定的西伯利亚为参照框架中塔里木板块及其周围的GPS速度矢量(红色箭头);(b)在塔里木周边固定参照系中塔里木板块内外的GPS速度矢量(红色箭头)(据文献[19]) 蓝星表示塔里木地块相对于其周围(两个虚线圆之间的区域)顺时针旋转的欧拉极点位置。蓝色矢量是模拟计算得到的GPS速度。

Fig.25 (a) GPS velocity vectors (red arrows) in and around the Tarim Block in a reference frame of the stable Siberia, and (b) GPS velocity vectors (red arrows) in and around the Tarim block in the “Tarim surrounding vicinity fixed reference frame”. Adapted from [19]. The blue star indicates the Euler pole location of the clockwise rotation of the Tarim Block with respect to its surroundings. The blue vectors are the GPS velocity calculated by the simulation. Detailed interpretation can refer to [19].

图26 中国西部板块构造格局(据文献[19]) 实线表示地震剖面的位置。塔里木盆地边缘的红色粗线段表示沿四个剖面的塔里木板块岩石圈外缘。蓝色和红色箭头对表示压缩或扩展的应力环境。红星表示欧拉极位置,塔里木板块围绕欧拉极有规律地旋转。

Fig.26 Plate tectonic pattern in western China (adapted from [19]). Solid lines indicate the location of seismic profiles. The thick red lines mark the outer margin of the Tarim Plate lithosphere along four sections. Blue and red arrows indicate compressive or extensional stress environments. The red star indicates the position of the Euler pole, around which the Tarim Plate rotates regularly.

图27 塔里木盆地中部Mazatage区域新近纪晚期古地磁偏角和磁地层年龄

Fig.27 Paleomagnetic declination and magnetostratigraphic age of the late Neogene in the Mazatage region of the central Tarim Basin

图28 渐新世早期生态系统重建 左图为准噶尔盆地以啮齿动物/兔形目动物为主要动物群的干-温的草原环境,右图为蒙古高原以奇蹄动物/偶蹄动物群为主宰的温暖潮湿的森林环境。

Fig.28 Ecosystem reconstruction in the early Oligocene. The left panel shows a dry-warm steppe environment dominated by rodent/lagomorph faunas in the Junggar Basin, while the right panel shows a warm-humid forest environment dominated by perissodactyl/artiodactyl faunas in Mongolia.