Deep seismic reflection evidence on the deep processes of tectonic construction of the Tibetan Plateau

doi:10.13745/j.esf.sf.2021.8.10

Abstract

Abstract:

The collision between the Indian and Asian plates uplifted the Himalayan- Tibetan Plateau, thickening and expanding the crust. It is a scientific mystery of global concern as how the two continents collide and how the continent-continent collision deforms the continent. Deep seismic reflection profile detection is one of the most effective ways to unlock this scientific mystery. For more than 20 years using this technology, we have detected fine structures of the thick crust of the Tibetan plateau after overcoming technical bottlenecks to access the lower crust and Moho thus revealing the continental collision processes. This paper systematically summarizes the deep behaviors of the India-Asia collision and subduction beneath the Tibetan Plateau, from south to north, east to west and further into the hinterland of the plateau. The Indian crust undergoes underthrusting beneath the Himalayan orogenic belt on the southern margin of the plateau. Meanwhile, the lithosphere of the Alxa block in the Asian plate subducts southward beneath the Qilian Mountain in the north of the plateau, driving the northward overthrusting of the Qilian crust. Additionally, the Tarim and West Kunlun blocks undergo face-to-face collision in the northwestern margin of the plateau. In the easternmost part of the plateau, the Longriba fault, instead of the Longmen Shan fault zone, marks the western margin of the Yangtze block. It is also seismically evidenced that the Moho geometry in the plateau’s hinterland appears thin and flat, indicating lithospheric collapse and extrusion. Multiple deep reflection profiles revealed the collisional behavior under the Yalung-Zangbo suture zone and longitudinal variation in subducting geometry of the Indian crust from west to the east. In the middle of the suture zone, it shows a decoupling between the upper and lower crusts of the Indian plate, where the upper crust undergoes a northward overthrusting while the lower one experiences a northward underthrusting. It is also seismically evidenced a down-and southward crustal duplexing of the subducting Indian crust thickening the northern Himalayas, leaving over a thinning subducting lower crust of the Indian slab. The subduction front of the Indian crust collides with the lower crust of the Asian plate at the mantle depth. A near-vertical collision boundary is seen between the Gangdese batholith and the Tethyan Himalayas, where the Gangdese batholith shows almost transparent weak reflections in the lower crust with localized bright spot reflection that indicates partial melting. Additionally, the near-flat Moho geometry implies an extensional tectonic environment of the southern margin of the Asian plate.

Key words: Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau, continent-continent collision, continental underthrusting, deep processes, deep seismic reflection profile

GAO Rui, ZHOU Hui, GUO Xiaoyu, LU Zhanwu, LI Wenhui, WANG Haiyan, LI Hongqiang, XIONG Xiaosong, HUANG Xingfu, XU Xiao. Deep seismic reflection evidence on the deep processes of tectonic construction of the Tibetan Plateau[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2021, 28(5): 320-336.

Figures/Tables 9

Fig.1 Status of deep seismic reflection profiling in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau as of the end of 2019. Sections outlined by the red and black lines are completed by the Lithosphere Research Center, Institute of Geology, CAGS (1, after [13-14]; 2, after [15]; 3, after [16-19]; 4, after [20-21]; 5, after [22-23]; 6, after [24-25]; 7, after [26-27]; 8, after [28-29]; 9, after [30]; 10, after [31-33]; 11, after [34-35]; 12, after [36]; 13, after [37]; 14, after [38]; 15, after [39]; 16, after [40-41]; 17, after [42]; 18, after [43]; 19-20, after [44-45]; 21-22, unpublished). Sections outlined by the yellow line are completed by INDEPTH (after [10-11]) and CEA (after [46-47]).

Fig.2 Evidence of Indian crustal subduction beneath the Himalayas as revealed by INDEPTH-Ⅰ deep seismic reflection profile. Left: unmigrated time profile (after [10]) using two-way time ordinate. Right: cartoon of the structure. Abbreviations: MBT, Main Boundary Thrust fault; MCT, Main Central Thrust fault; STD, South Tibet Detachment. Location of the profile is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.3 Deep seismic reflection profile (left) and tectonic interpretation of the North Qilian-Hexi Corridor (right) (modified after [48]). Symbols: White triangle—strong reflection axis in lateral continuity, representing shallow sedimentary strata; Red triangle—strong reflection axis which can be tracked intermittently in the transverse direction, representing slip layer in the shell; Black triangle—short near horizontal reflection axis in the middle and lower crust; Green triangle—reflection axis of lower and middle crust sloping southward; Blue triangle—strongly reflective Moho. Other features: Blue vertical line—Moho conversion band; Black dotted lines—a series of thrusting faults that truncate the main reflection axis; Thick black dotted line—Moho; Green circles with letters—transparent reflection areas; Solid red line—the North Border Thrust (NBT) fault (see [18-19]). The location of the crustal subduction profile of the Alxa block toward the lower Qilian Mountain along the NBT is shown in section 3 in Fig.1.

Fig.4 The West Kunlun-Tarim deep seismic reflection profile (left) and face-to-face tectonic model interpretation (right) (modified from [55]). Left: time migration section reprocessed in 2015, using two way time (s) and CDP number (spacing of 25 m) as the ordinate and lateral coordinates, respectively. The blue dashed line describes the main seismic phase, beneath the 6 s (TWT), with West Kunlun and Tarim getting together in a face-to-face shape in the lower crust. Right: two models for structural interpretation: (a) The lower crust of West Kunlun is an extension of the lower crust subduction of the India plate, colliding with Tarim; (b) The lower crust of West Kunlun is the return part of the subduction of the lower crust of the Indian plate, forming a new superimposed Moho while colliding with the Tarim basin. The location map is shown in section 1 in Fig.1.

Fig.5 The Longmenshan Deep Seismic Reflection Section (Zoegay-Sichuan basin) (see section 12 in Fig.1 for location). Above: linedraw map of the deep seismic reflection section, with two-way time ordinate on the left and reference depth ordinate on the right, given the average crustal velocity of 6.00 km/s. Below: enlargement of the figure above, showing the lower crust of the Yangtze River is cut by the Longriba fault belt from the Sichuan basin through Longmenshan to the west (a) and the Wenchuan-Maowen fault has a flower-like strike slip structure extending downward and cutting through Moho (b). Abbreviations: SGT, Songpan Ganzi terrane; YB, Yangtze block; LRQF, longriqu fault (right branch of the Longriba fault zone); PGF, Pengguan fault; MJF, Minjiang fault; WMF, Wenchuan-Maowen fault; BCF, Beichuan fault.

Fig.6 Deep seismic reflection profile in the central Tibetan Plateau (North Lhasa terrain -BNS-Qiangtang terrain) (see section 8 in Fig.1 for location). Above: linedraw map of the reflection section of the Bangong-Nujiang suture (BNS), with two-way time ordinate and latitude abscissa. Below: enlarged seismic image of Moho in the BNS, where Moho appears at 24 s at the northernmost of the South Lhasa terrane and at 22 s in the Qiangtang terrane on the north side of the suture zone, showing a 2 s offset on the north and south sides of the suture zone. Moho uplifted at 20-21 s and distributed nearly horizontally in the interior of the Qiangtang terrane.

Fig.8a Linedraw map of single shot gathers of deep seismic reflection profile across the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone, showing two large-shot gathers (Nos. 102482 and 104282, each explosive is 2000 kg) in the West Xietongmen section. The location of the profile is shown in section 15 in Fig.1 (black section in [66]). The ordinate is two-way time, extending downward to 30 s (TWT) at 94.50 km depth, estimated according to the average crustal velocity of 6.30 km/s[77]. The abscissa shows the location of the two large shot gathers in CDP arrangement. The image shows that the Indian crust subducted under the Gangdese, colliding with the Asian crust, and the mantle of the two continents has been sutured (see text for more explanation).

Fig.7 Deep seismic reflection profile across the Kunlun fault (location see section 5 in Fig.1). Above: an unexplained deep reflection profile spanning the Zoige basin, West Qinling orogenic belt and Linxia basin, with a total length of 260 km[70]. Below: interpreted reflection profile, estimated using the average crustal velocity of 6.00 km/s. Abbreviations: UD, upper detachment fault; MD, middle detachment fault; LD, lower detachment fault.

Fig.8b Linedraw map and interpretation of the deep seismic reflection profile of the Tethys Himalaya Yarlung Zangbo suture-Gangdese batholith, with all data on the West Xietongmen section. The black line is the sketch line, and the blue line is the frame line for interpretation. The abscissa is expressed by the distance (km), and the total length is 105 km from the south end of the profile. The positions of the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone and Gangdese batholith are shown in Figs.8a, b. The positions of the two large shot gathers are indicated by the red stars. The 102482 shot is located in the Tethys Himalayan tectonic belt, 10 km away from the southern boundary of the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone. The 104282 shot is located 35 km north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone entering the Gangdese batholith.

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