Tracing the deep geological processes of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic oceanic plate on the continental margin of the East Asian continent in China

doi:10.13745/j.esf.sf.2025.8.62

Abstract

Abstract:

There remains no unified understanding regarding the causes of Mesozoic-Cenozoic continental margin tectonics in the East Asian continent of China, with significant differences persisting. Based on the geological framework of oceanic plates, this paper re-examines these causes. Our findings reveal that: (1) Subduction of oceanic plates along the Mesozoic-Cenozoic continental margin of East Asia was not only widespread but also continuously extended into the mantle transition zone (400-660 km depth), where they accumulated. This formed a novel thermodynamical system with crust formation and continent building functions, termed ‘second continental dynamics’ or the ‘second continent’. This system controlled the formation and evolution of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic continent in China. (2) Numerous oceanic islands, seamounts, and oceanic plateaus have been identified within subduction-accretionary complex zones in the Chinese mainland. Their coexistence with the opposing tectonic regime of oceanic plate subduction within the same subduction zone indicates that the formation and evolution of the Chinese mainland were fundamentally constrained by the subduction of five ancient oceanic plates (Paleo-Asian Ocean, Tethys Ocean, Paleo-Pacific Ocean, Okhotsk Ocean, and South China Ocean). (3) Within the Xar Moron subduction-accretionary complex zone in Inner Mongolia, three genetically distinct regimes of oceanic islands and seamounts have been discovered: ‘mantle plume’ type, mid-ocean ridge type, and island arc type. This demonstrates that the tectonic backgrounds during the evolution of these ancient oceans were diverse and complex, forming in environments including island arcs, hotspots, mantle plumes, back-arc basins, and mid-ocean ridges. The island arc environment is clearly linked to plate subduction, while hotspots and seamounts are associated with mantle plumes. This indicates that two opposing tectonic regimes- intra-oceanic subduction and intra-plate asthenospheric mantle upwelling - coexisted during ancient ocean evolution. Based on these findings, we propose that the Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenic belts in East Asia formed through the composite evolution of an intra-oceanic subduction + intra-plate asthenospheric mantle upwelling system. This system was triggered by the mantle transition zone (the ‘second continent’) beneath these belts, rather than solely by mantle plumes. Consequently, the discovery of island arc-type oceanic islands and seamounts provides crucial scientific evidence for establishing the theoretical model of coexisting intra-oceanic subduction and intra-plate asthenospheric mantle upwelling within the Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenic belts of East Asia, within the context of oceanic plate geology in China. It is therefore essential to re-evaluate the influence of the mantle transition zone (the ‘second continent’) beneath these orogenic belts on the formation and evolution of the Chinese mainland, its metallogenic potential, and its implications for strategic ore-prospecting predictions.

Key words: East Asian continent in China, Mesozoic-Cenozoic, the second continent, the coexistence of intra-oceanic subduction + intra-plate asthenospheric mantle upwelling

CLC Number:

P542
P612

XIAO Qinghui, LIU Yong, LI Tingdong, PAN Guitang, LU Songnian, DING Xiaozhong, ZHANG Kexin, PANG Jianfeng, QIU Ruizhao, ZHAO Guochun, ZHANG Heng, CHENG Yang, FAN Yuxu, FU Li. Tracing the deep geological processes of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic oceanic plate on the continental margin of the East Asian continent in China[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2025, 32(6): 9-28.

Figures/Tables 31

Fig.1 Growth curves of different continents. Modified after [8].

Fig.2 Ubiquitous subduction in continental and oceanic arcs. Modified after [12]. 1—Uralian; 2-6—Central Asian (2—Baikal-Muya; 3—Yenisey-Transbaikalia-North Mongolia; 4— Altay-Sayan-NW Mongolia; 5—Irtysh-Zaysan; 6—Tienshan); 7—South Inner Mongolia; 8—Mongol-Okhotsk; 9—Sikhote-Alin; 10—Verkhoyansk; 11—Okhotsk-Chukotka; 12—South Anuy; 13—West Kamchatka; 14—Pamir-Hindukush; 15—Kunlun-Qinling; 16—Tibet-Himalaya; 17—South China.

Fig.3 Distribution of intra-oceanic arcs in the western Pacific. Modified after [8].

Fig.4 Subduction of five intra-oceanic arcs within the Philippine Sea Plate beneath Japan’s Honshu and East Asian continent. Modified after [8].

Fig.5 Subduction of five intra-oceanic arcs beneath Honshu and East Asia, with eastward flow of the large mantle wedge. Modified after [13].

Table 1 Intra-oceanic arcs in the western Pacific. Modified after [8].

序号	名称	俯冲或增生弧	序号	名称	俯冲或增生弧
1	Shirshov-Bowers	不清楚	21	North Borneo-Sulu-Zamboanga	不清楚
2	Alaska-Aleutians	不清楚	22	Halmahera	增生
3	S. Kamchatka	不清楚	23	Sabgihe	增生
4	Kuriles	不清楚	24	Sulawesi East Arm	增生
5	Hidaka	不清楚	25	Sulawesi West Arm	增生
6	NE Japan	不清楚	26	Sula	不清楚
7	Izu-Bonin	部分增生	27	Banda	不清楚
8	East Mariana	不清楚	28	Sunda (Java-Flores)	不清楚
9	West Mariana	不清楚	29	Sunda (Sumatra)	不清楚
10	Sw Japan	不清楚	30	Bismarck	不清楚
11	Kyushu-Palao	俯冲	31	New Britain	不清楚
12	Amami	俯冲	32	Bewani-Torricelli	不清楚
13	Daito	俯冲	33	Central Papua New Guinea	不清楚
14	Okion-Daito	俯冲	34	Solomon	不清楚
15	Ryu-Kyu	不清楚	35	Vanuatu	不清楚
16	West Philippines	不清楚	36	Tofua (Tonga)	不清楚
17	Luzon	不清楚	37	Kermadec	不清楚
18	Negros	不清楚	38	New Zealand	不清楚
19	SE Mindanao	不清楚	39	Macquarie	不清楚
20	Palawan	不清楚

Fig.6 Schematic diagram showing the tectonic elements of a new continent formed by oceanic plate subduction and accretion. Modified after [14].

Fig.7 TTG and mantle peridotite density profiles. Modified after [15-16].

Fig.8 Seismic tomographic profile from the Pamir to Japan. Modified after [17-18].

Fig.9 Seismic tomographic profile from the Chuan-Dian Block to the Izu Trench. Modified after [17].

Fig.10 Seismic tomographic profile from Tengchong to the Mariana Trench. Modified after [17].

Fig.11 Seismic tomographic profile from the India Plate to the Qiangtang Block. Modified after [17].

Fig.12 Seismic tomographic profile from the India Plate to the Qaidam Basin. Modified after [17].

Fig.13 Seismic tomographic profile from the India Plate to the Junggar Basin. Modified after [17].

Fig.14 Seismic tomographic profile from the India Plate to the Junggar Basin. Modified after [17].

Fig.15 Seismic tomographic profile from India to Kazakhstan. Modified after [17].

Fig.16 Comparison of radiogentic elements in various rock types from the mantle transition zone or “Second Continent”. Modified after [12].

Fig.17 Mantle transition zone beneath East Asia: An east-west transect illustrating its structure and role in crustal growth and continent formation. Modified after [19-20].

Fig.18 Schematic diagram illustrating the subduction, stagnation, and accumulation of an oceanic plate beneath eastern China to the mantle transition zone. Modified after [16].

Fig.19 Schematic diagram of subduction and accumulation in the “Second Continent”. Modified after [16].

Fig.20 Schematic model illustrating the generation of hydrated mantle diapirs from the mantle transition zone. Modified after [21].

Fig.21 A schematic mode of mantle dynamics analogous to mid-ocean ridges: From thermal anomalies in the transition zone to asthenspheric upwelling and continental rifting. Modified after [29].

Fig.22 Model of crustal growth and continent formation in the “Second Continent”. Modified after [21].

Fig.23 East Asia as a unique triangular zone: Hydrating the mantle transition zone via bidirectional subduction. Modified after [27].

Fig.24 Diagram illustrating the future closure of the Arctic Ocean and the formation of a land bridge between Asia and America. Modified after [12].

Fig.25 Tectonic setting and profile showing five intra-oceanic arcs on the Philippine Sea Plate subducting beneath Japan’s Honshu without accretion. Modified after [44].

Fig.26 A crustal profile of 30-35 km thickness with no accretion in Central Honshu Island. Modified after [43].

Fig.27 The Basket Model: A schematic diagram of a sediment-trapping subduction mechanism. Modified after [21].

Fig.28 Evidence of intense tectonic erosion in a plate convergence zone. Modified after [43].

Fig.29 Graben structures on the subducting slab transporting trench turbidites and the accretionary complex into the deep mantle. Modified after [43].

Fig.30 Tectonic framework of Northeast Japan: Four chronostratigraphic units and associated graben systems transporting turbidites to the deep mantle. Modified after [12].

References 45

[1]	CHENG Y, XIAO Q H, LI T D, et al. Geochemistry and tectonic history of seamount remnants in the Xingshuwa Subduction Accretionary Complex of the Xar Moron area, eastern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt[J]. Acta Geologica Sinica, 2021, 95(4): 1086-1098.
[2]	OSANAI Y, KOMATSU M, OWADA M. Metamorphism and granite genesis in the Hidaka metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, Japan[J]. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 1991, 9: 111-124.
[3]	WHITE W M. Oceanic island basalts and mantle plumes: the geochemical perspective[J]. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 2010, 38(1): 133-160.
[4]	SAFONOVA I, MARUYAMA S. Asia: a frontier for a future supercontinent[J]. International Geology Review, 2014, 56: 1051e1071.
[5]	DEWEY J F, WINDLEY B F. Growth and differentiation of the continental crust[J]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 1981, 301(1461): 189-206.
[6]	FYFE W S. The evolution of the Earth’s crust: modern plate tectonics to ancient hot spot tectonics[J]. Chemical Geology, 1978, 23: 89-114.
[7]	ARMSTRONG R L. Radiogenic isotopes: the case for crustal recycling on anearsteady state nocontinental-growth Earth[J]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1981, A301: 443-472.
[8]	YAMAMOTO S, SENSHU H, RINO S, et al. Granite subduction: arc subduction, tectonic erosion and sediment subduction[J]. Gondwana Research, 2009, 15(3/4): 443-453.
[9]	RINO S, KON Y, SATO W, et al. The Grenvillian and Pan-African orogens: world’s largest orogenies through geologic time, and their implications on the origin of superplume[J]. Gondwana Research, 2008, 14: 51-72.
[10]	RICHARDSON W P, OKAL E A, VAN DER LEE S. Rayleigh-wave tomography of the Ontong-Java Plateau[J]. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 2000, 118(1/2): 29-51.
[11]	SENO T, MARUYAMA S. Paleogeographic reconstruction and origin of the Philippine Sea[J]. Tectonophysics, 1984, 102: 53-84.
[12]	SAFONOVA I Y, MARUYAMA S. Asia: a frontier for a future supercontinent Amasia[J]. International Geology Review, 2014, 56(9): 1051-1071.
[13]	MARUYAMA S, HASEGAWA A, SANTOSH M, et al. The dynamics of big mantle wedge, magma factory, and metamorphic-metasomatic factory in subduction zones[J]. Gondwana Research, 2009, 16: 414-430.
[14]	OMORI S, SENSU H, KAWAI K, et al. Pacific-type orogens: new concepts and variations inspace and time from present to past[J]. Journal of Geography, 2011, 120: 115-223(in Japanese with English abstract and captions).
[15]	KAWAII K, TSUCHIYA T, TSUCHIYA J, et al. Lost primordial continents[J]. Gondwana Research, 2009, 16: 581-586.
[16]	KAWAII K, YAMAMOTO S, TSUCHIYA T, et al. The seond continent: existence of granitic continental materials around the bottom of the mantle transition zone[J]. Geoscience Frontiers, 2013, 4: 1-6.
[17]	HU A Q, WEI G J, ZHANG J B, et al. SHRIMP U-Pb ages for zircons of the amphibolites and tectonic evolution significance from the Wenquan domain in the West Tianshan Mountains, Xinjiang, China[J]. Acta Petrologica Sinica, 2008, 24(12): 2731-2740 (in Chinese with English abstract).
[18]	ZHAO W P, JIA Z K, WEN Z G, et al. The discovery of the blueschists from the Baerluke ophiolitic melange belt in Western Junggar, Xinjiang[J]. Northwest Geology, 2012, 45(2): 136-138 (in Chinese with English abstract).
[19]	TAIRA K, PICKERING T, WINDLEY B F, et al. Accretion of Japanese island arcs and implications for the origin of Archean greenstone belts[J]. Tectonics, 1992, 11: 1224-1244.
[20]	ZHAO G, SUN M, WILDE S A, et al. A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup[J]. Earth-Science Reviews, 2004, 67: 91-123.
[21]	SENSHU H, MARUYAMA S, RINO S, et al. Role of tonalite-trodhjemite-granite (TTG) crust subduction on the mechanism supercontinent breakup[J]. Gondwana Research, 2009, 15(3): 433-442.
[22]	KANEKO Y, MARUYAMA S, KADARUSMAN A, et al. On-going orogeny in the outer-arc of the Timor-Tanimbar region, eastern Indonesia[J]. Gondwana Research, 2007, 11: 218-233.
[23]	BRENAN J M, SHAW H F, PHINNEY D L, et al. Rutile-aqueous fluid partitioning of Nb, Ta, Hf, Zr, U and Th: implications for high field strength element depletions in island-arc basalts[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1994, 128(3): 327-339.
[24]	PRYTULAK J, ELLIOTT, et al. TiO₂ enrichment in ocean island basalts[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2007, 263(3): 388-403.
[25]	SAUNDERS A. Putting continents asunder[J]. Nature, 1988, 332(6166): 679.
[26]	McCULLOCH M T, GAMBLE J A. Geochemical and geodynamical constraints on subduction zone magmatism[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1991, 102(3): 358-374.
[27]	MARUYAMA S, SANTOSH M, ZHAO D, et al. Superplume, supercontinent, and post-perovskite: mantle dynamics and anti-plate tectonics on the core-mantle boundary[J]. Gondwana Research, 2007, 11: 7-37.
[28]	SANTOSH M, MARUYAMA S, KOMIYA T, et al. Orogens in the evolving Earth: from surface continents to ‘lost continents’ at the core-mantle boundary[J]. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 2010, 338: 77-116.
[29]	HONG K C, WANG S F, ZHANG S W, et al. Oligocene melting of subducted mélange and its mantle dynamics in northeast Asia[J]. Geology, 2024, 52: 539-544.
[30]	CRUZ U A M, MARSCHALL H R, GAETANI G A, et al. Generation of alkaline magmas in subduction zones by partial melting of mélange diapirs: an experimental study[J]. Geology, 2018, 46(4): 343-346.
[31]	GERYA T V, YUEN D A. Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities from hydration and melting propel ‘cold plumes’ at subduction zones(Article)[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2003, 212(1): 47-62.
[32]	MARSCHALLCA H R, SCHUMACHER J C. Arc magmas sourced from mélange diapirs in subduction zones[J]. Nature Geoscience, 2012, 5(12): 862-867.
[33]	CODILLO E A, Le ROUX V, KLEIN B, et al. The ascent of subduction zone mélanges: experimental constraints on mélange rock densities and solidus temperatures[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2023, 621: 118-398.
[34]	HALL P S, KINCAID, et al. Diapiric flow at subduction zones: a recipe for rapid transport[J]. Science, 2001, 292(5526): 2472-2475.
[35]	REBAZACA A M, MALLIK A, STRAUB S M. Multiple episodes of rock-melt reaction at the slab-mantle interface: formation of high silica primary magmas in intermediate to hot subduction zones[J]. Journal of Petrology, 2023, 64(3): 1408-1424.
[36]	HASEGAWA A, NAKAJIMA J, KITA S, et al. Anomalous deepening of a belt of intraslab earthquakes in the Pacific slab crust under Kanto, central Japan: possible anomalous thermal shielding, dehydration reactions, and seismicity caused by shallower cold slab material[J]. Geophysical Research Letters, 2007, 34: L09305.
[37]	KLEIN, BENJAMIN Z, BEHN, et al. On the evolution and fate of sediment diapirs in subduction zones[J]. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 2021, 22(11): e2021GC009873.
[38]	RYDELEK P A, SACKS I S. Asthenospheric viscosity inferred from correlated land-sea earthquakes in Northeast Japan[J]. Nature, 1988, 336(6196): 234-237.
[39]	ZHAO W, MECHIE J, BROWN L D, et al. Crustal structure of central Tibet as derived from project INDEPTH wide-angle seismic data[J]. Geophysical Journal International, 2001, 145(2): 486-498.
[40]	DONG Y, XIONG S, WANG F, et al. Triggering of episodic back-arc extensions in the Northeast Asian continental margin by deep mantle flow[J]. Geology, 2023, 51(2): 193-198.
[41]	WADA I, HE J H, HASEGAWA A, et al. Mantle wedge flow pattern and thermal structure in Northeast Japan: effects of oblique subduction and 3-D slab geometry[J]. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2015, 426: 76-88.
[42]	WANG Z W, ZHAO D P. 3D anisotropic structure of the Japan subduction zone[J]. Science Advances, 2021, 7(4): eabc9620.
[43]	MARUYAMA S, SANTOSH M, ZHAO D, et al. Superplume, supercontinent, and post-perovskite: mantle dynamics and anti-plate tectonics on the core-mantle boundary[J]. Gondwana Research, 2007, 11: 7-37.
[44]	ISOZAKI Y, AOKI K, NAKAMA T, et al. New insight into a subduction-related orogen: a reappraisal of the geotectonic framework and evolution of the Japanese Islands[J]. Gondwana Research, 2010, 18(4): 709.
[45]	NAKAJIMA, TAKASHI. The Ryoke plutonometamorphic belt: crustal section of the Cretaceous Eurasian continental margin[J]. Lithos, 1994, 33(1): 51-66.