Current status and future prospects of sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification technology in engineering applications

doi:10.13745/j.esf.sf.2025.10.24

Abstract

Abstract:

Biological denitrification is a key technology for nitrate removal. However, conventional heterotrophic denitrification requires external organic carbon sources, which leads to high operational costs, excessive sludge production, and significant carbon emissions. In the context of the “Dual Carbon Goals,” selecting cost-effective and environmentally sustainable biological treatment technologies has become a crucial strategy for low-carbon nitrate wastewater remediation. Sulfur-autotrophic denitrification (SAD) utilizes elemental sulfur or sulfides as electron donors to support microbial nitrate reduction. Compared to traditional heterotrophic processes, SAD significantly reduces carbon emissions and the need for external carbon sources. This review systematically examines the principles and engineering applications of SAD, compares the nitrogen removal performances of composite sulfur-based materials and high-sulfur-content substrates, and discusses the functional roles of sulfur-autotrophic filter media in practical implementations. By elucidating differences in reactor configurations, material properties, contact mechanisms, and microbial community enrichment strategies, this work highlights the performance characteristics of various reactor types in real-world scenarios. Based on an analysis of system operational features, the review summarizes full-scale applications of autotrophic denitrification in municipal, industrial, and ecological contexts. It explores the current use of SAD in areas such as municipal wastewater treatment, high-salinity effluents, and constructed wetlands, and provides a quantitative evaluation of its operational costs and environmental benefits. Finally, the review outlines future research directions for SAD, emphasizing material development and genetic engineering-based targeted regulation to standardize processes and overcome engineering bottlenecks. The ultimate goal is to establish a low-carbon, high-efficiency sulfur-autotrophic nitrogen removal system, offering valuable insights for the engineering application of SAD technology.

Key words: microbial metabolism, reactor construction, sulfur-based composite materials, low-carbon nitrogen removal, engineering application

CLC Number:

X703.1

CHEN Nan, CHEN Fangxin, PENG Tong, LI Yeping, SUN Daxin, YUAN Yuan, LIU Chengtian, MEI Duoduo, ZHAN Yongheng, WANG Xiaotong, FENG Chuanping. Current status and future prospects of sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification technology in engineering applications[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2026, 33(1): 163-178.

Figures/Tables 7

References 147

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序号	名称	进水类型与应用场景	容积负荷/kg ${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N/(m³·d)	主要电子供体及含量/%	粒径/mm	应用成熟度	文献
1	硫基复合材料(NSAD)	多场景下的硝酸盐污染水体	0.08~0.58	硫黄/ 55~85	3~6	商用	[27]
2	自养缓释活性滤料	工业园区污水	0.64	硫黄/ 70~80	2~3	商用	[30]
3	新型硫-缓释碳源混合填料(SRC)	市政生活污水	0.21	单质硫/50		小试	[31]
4	硫包覆铁碳微电解填料	垃圾渗滤液处理厂/膜反应器	0.30	单质硫、铁	5	小试	[32]
5	硫自养反硝化功能生物载体材料	市政生活污水/膜反应器	0.20	硫黄、硫粉、硫化钠/ 7.8		小试	[33]
6	硫黄-高分子导电生物硫自养材料	市政生活污水/流化床	0.002 1	硫黄 / 3	3~5	小试	[34]
7	五合一复合硫自养反硝化材料	市政生活污水/人工湿地	0.017	单质硫、硫代硫酸钠/ 18	≥5	实验室	[35]
8	富铁泥碳-硫自养反硝化材料	市政生活污水/填充床	0.045	单质硫 / 80	3~6	实验室	[36]
9	铁碳基复合硫自养反硝化填料	二级生化污水	0.44	黄铁矿、硫黄/50	3~5	实验室	[37]
10	硫化-纳米零价铁(S-nZVI)	地表水/人工湿地	0.021	单质硫、铁、 Fe²⁺/ 30~67		实验室	[38]
11	石蜡强化硫-菱铁矿集成复合材料	污水处理厂二级出水	0.019	单质硫、菱铁矿/25	3~5	实验室	[39]

序号	名称	进水类型与应用场景	容积负荷/kg ${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N/(m³·d)	主要电子供体及含量/%	粒径/mm	应用成熟度	文献
1	硫基复合材料(NSAD)	多场景下的硝酸盐污染水体	0.08~0.58	硫黄/ 55~85	3~6	商用	[27]
2	自养缓释活性滤料	工业园区污水	0.64	硫黄/ 70~80	2~3	商用	[30]
3	新型硫-缓释碳源混合填料(SRC)	市政生活污水	0.21	单质硫/50		小试	[31]
4	硫包覆铁碳微电解填料	垃圾渗滤液处理厂/膜反应器	0.30	单质硫、铁	5	小试	[32]
5	硫自养反硝化功能生物载体材料	市政生活污水/膜反应器	0.20	硫黄、硫粉、硫化钠/ 7.8		小试	[33]
6	硫黄-高分子导电生物硫自养材料	市政生活污水/流化床	0.002 1	硫黄 / 3	3~5	小试	[34]
7	五合一复合硫自养反硝化材料	市政生活污水/人工湿地	0.017	单质硫、硫代硫酸钠/ 18	≥5	实验室	[35]
8	富铁泥碳-硫自养反硝化材料	市政生活污水/填充床	0.045	单质硫 / 80	3~6	实验室	[36]
9	铁碳基复合硫自养反硝化填料	二级生化污水	0.44	黄铁矿、硫黄/50	3~5	实验室	[37]
10	硫化-纳米零价铁(S-nZVI)	地表水/人工湿地	0.021	单质硫、铁、 Fe²⁺/ 30~67		实验室	[38]
11	石蜡强化硫-菱铁矿集成复合材料	污水处理厂二级出水	0.019	单质硫、菱铁矿/25	3~5	实验室	[39]

反应器类型	形式	优势	挑战	反应体系	${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N 去除率/%	${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N去除负荷/ (kg ${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N/(m³·d))	适用场景	应用成熟度	引文
固定床反应器(PBR)	生物滤池	可调整性强,抗冲击能力强	传质效率低,易堵塞	微生物附着在固定载体表面,硫(粒径2~8 mm)作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	85.3~98.0	0.19~1.36	市政污水,工业废水,生活污水	中试规模、工程应用	[27,102-109]
固定床反应器(PBR)	生物过滤器	可调整性强,抗冲击能力强	传质效率低,易堵塞	微生物附着在固定载体表面,硫(粒径2~8 mm)作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	95.0~99.2	0.75~1.30	市政污水,工业废水,生活污水	实验室规模	[48,110-115]
流化床反应器 (FBR)	流化床反应器/移动床生物膜反应器 (MBBR)	传质效率高,脱氮效率高	能耗高,抗冲击能力较弱	微生物附着在悬浮载体表面,硫(粒径以μm计)作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	84.5~98.0	0.18~0.61	高浓度硝酸盐废水,生活污水	实验室规模	[49,69,116]
膜生物反应器 (MBR)	膜生物反应器(MBR)	高效进行固液分离,有效截留微生物	投资成本高,膜组件污染	生物降解与膜过滤协同	68.0~95.4	0.28~4.00	市政污水,工业废水	实验室规模	[50,73,76,117-118]
活性污泥反应器	升流式厌氧污泥床(UASB)/厌氧折流板反应(ABR)	无需设置填料,容积利用率高	耐冲击能力差,会出现污泥流失	没有固定载体,利用活性污泥降解污染物	约100.0	0.79~1.53	高浓度硫酸盐工业废水	实验室规模	[51,78]
土壤系统反应器	土壤渗滤系统(SIS)	基建投资少,运行管理简单	占地面积较大,效率受环境影响	微生物附着在土壤上,硫作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	70.3~88.6	0.21~0.53	生活污水	实验室规模	[53,85-86]
土壤系统反应器	人工湿地(CW)	基建投资少,运行管理简单	占地面积较大,效率受环境影响	微生物附着在土壤上,硫作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	69.2~96.4		污水处理厂尾水,河湖生态修复	中试规模、试验性工程应用	[52,87-89,93]
电化学反应器	生物电化学反应器(BER)	反应条件温和,环境友好	成本高,受电极材料限制	外接电源,利用微生物与电化学过程耦合	57.0~97.2	0.01~0.08	污水处理厂尾水	实验室规模	[54,97,119]
电化学反应器	微生物燃料电池(MFC)	反应条件温和,环境友好	成本高,受电极材料限制	利用微生物催化降解并转化为电能	58.7~100.0	0.07~0.09	含硫化物工业废水	实验室规模	[98-99]

反应器类型	形式	优势	挑战	反应体系	${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N 去除率/%	${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N去除负荷/ (kg ${\mathrm{NO}}_{3}^{-}$-N/(m³·d))	适用场景	应用成熟度	引文
固定床反应器(PBR)	生物滤池	可调整性强,抗冲击能力强	传质效率低,易堵塞	微生物附着在固定载体表面,硫(粒径2~8 mm)作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	85.3~98.0	0.19~1.36	市政污水,工业废水,生活污水	中试规模、工程应用	[27,102-109]
固定床反应器(PBR)	生物过滤器	可调整性强,抗冲击能力强	传质效率低,易堵塞	微生物附着在固定载体表面,硫(粒径2~8 mm)作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	95.0~99.2	0.75~1.30	市政污水,工业废水,生活污水	实验室规模	[48,110-115]
流化床反应器 (FBR)	流化床反应器/移动床生物膜反应器 (MBBR)	传质效率高,脱氮效率高	能耗高,抗冲击能力较弱	微生物附着在悬浮载体表面,硫(粒径以μm计)作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	84.5~98.0	0.18~0.61	高浓度硝酸盐废水,生活污水	实验室规模	[49,69,116]
膜生物反应器 (MBR)	膜生物反应器(MBR)	高效进行固液分离,有效截留微生物	投资成本高,膜组件污染	生物降解与膜过滤协同	68.0~95.4	0.28~4.00	市政污水,工业废水	实验室规模	[50,73,76,117-118]
活性污泥反应器	升流式厌氧污泥床(UASB)/厌氧折流板反应(ABR)	无需设置填料,容积利用率高	耐冲击能力差,会出现污泥流失	没有固定载体,利用活性污泥降解污染物	约100.0	0.79~1.53	高浓度硫酸盐工业废水	实验室规模	[51,78]
土壤系统反应器	土壤渗滤系统(SIS)	基建投资少,运行管理简单	占地面积较大,效率受环境影响	微生物附着在土壤上,硫作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	70.3~88.6	0.21~0.53	生活污水	实验室规模	[53,85-86]
土壤系统反应器	人工湿地(CW)	基建投资少,运行管理简单	占地面积较大,效率受环境影响	微生物附着在土壤上,硫作为电子供体,硝酸盐作为电子受体	69.2~96.4		污水处理厂尾水,河湖生态修复	中试规模、试验性工程应用	[52,87-89,93]
电化学反应器	生物电化学反应器(BER)	反应条件温和,环境友好	成本高,受电极材料限制	外接电源,利用微生物与电化学过程耦合	57.0~97.2	0.01~0.08	污水处理厂尾水	实验室规模	[54,97,119]
电化学反应器	微生物燃料电池(MFC)	反应条件温和,环境友好	成本高,受电极材料限制	利用微生物催化降解并转化为电能	58.7~100.0	0.07~0.09	含硫化物工业废水	实验室规模	[98-99]

项目	参数	硫自养反硝化滤池	上向流滤池	降流式反硝化深床滤池
功能填料参数	功能填料	还原态硫;	陶粒/石英砂	天然海砂
	粒径范围	粒径:3~20 mm	4~9 mm(陶粒);0.8~2 mm, 不均匀系数小于2(石英砂)	1.7~3.35 mm
	机械强度	磨损率和破碎率之和应不大于6%, 简压强度应不小于 4 MPa	压碎值≤10%,磨损率≤3%	莫氏硬度6~7
设计参数	容积负荷	0.1~0.8 kg N/(m³·d)	0.8~1.2 kg N/(m³·d)	0.3~1.6 kg N/(m³·d)
	滤速	上向流≤10 m/h 下向流≤8 m/h	8~20 m/h	4.5~8 m/h
	气洗强度	14~30 L/(m²·s)	12~14 L/(m²·s)	20~30.5 L/(m²·s)
	水洗强度	6~9 L/(m²·s)	5~6 L/(m²·s)(陶粒); 2~3 L/(m²·s)(石英砂)	3.8~4.4 L/(m²·s)
	气水联合气洗强度	14~30 L/(m²·s)	12~14 L/(m²·s)	20~30.5 L/(m²·s)
	气水联合水洗强度	6~9 L/(m²·s)	5~6 L/(m²·s)(陶粒); 2~3 L/(m²·s)(石英砂)	3.8~4.4 L/(m²·s)
	反洗周期	反冲洗周期宜为 3~15 d	应根据滤池进出水水质、运行期终水头损失以及水厂运行管理等因素,通过试验或参照相似条件下已有滤池的经验确定	过滤水头1.5~2.4 m
	反洗时间组合	气洗2~5 min-气水联合 5~10 min-水洗5~10 min	气洗2~3 min-气水联合 4~6 min-水洗3~4 min	气洗3~5 min-气水联合 10~15 min-水洗5~10 min
参考文献		[124]	[125-126]	[127]