高能洪水沉积研究综述

doi:10.13745/j.esf.sf.2020.9.17

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

第四纪巨型堰塞湖溃决产生的高能洪水是地球及其他星球上已知规模最大的陆地淡水事件。越来越多的研究证明高能洪水事件具有普遍性,广泛发育于欧亚大陆、北美洲和南美洲等地区。研究者发现不同地区高能洪水事件的沉积特征具有一定的共性,但其典型沉积序列却依然缺失。本文首先回顾了全球已报道高能洪水案例并介绍了高能洪水的定义,总结了高能洪水沉积的特征与地层层序,归纳了其典型沉积序列及其标志性特性。同时,沉积证据是高能洪水的唯一记录,本文通过沉积层序的解读以期重建单次或多次高能洪水的流量过程、水动力条件和物质输送方式。典型高能洪水沉积物多呈块状构造,席状展布,缺乏黏土和粉砂粒级,发育层合并现象、“漂浮”碎屑、内碎屑、脱水构造和同生变形构造。高能洪水典型沉积序列由下往上包括底部粗粒平行、大型斜坡沉积、水平纹层、波纹和沙垄交错层理、粉砂层和顶部泥石流沉积。该沉积序列由高浓度悬浮质的快速沉积主导,可对应于单次的水流增强与减弱;从洪水过程曲线的时间尺度理解,其代表了洪水的涨水和消落过程,其间伴随着水流的周期性强烈脉动。最后,简单介绍了我国已发现的高能洪水事件,展望了我国的高能洪水研究。

关键词: 高能洪水, 水文特性, 沉积体系, 典型序列

Abstract:

Discoveries of cataclysmic glacial lake outburst floods have expanded the scale and frequency of known mass transport events on Earth and other planets. It has been realized that sedimentary deposits related to high-energy freshwater floods are widespread across continents and these deposits share some commonalities when compared carefully. However, the identification and sophisticated reconstruction of these high-energy flood events require well-conditioned stratigraphic models of depositional successions, yet such models are still lacking. Thus, the primary purpose of this paper is to examine and condense the published stratigraphic and sedimentological evidence to identify the key signatures of megaflood successions. The deposits are often the only record of a flood; therefore, the secondary purpose is to interpret the sedimentary sequences in order to reconstruct the behavior and dynamics of a single and multiple flood events. The deposits of high-energy floods are usually massive and extensive, exhibiting sedimentary structures such as amalgamation, rhythmicity, outsized clasts, intraclasts, and obstacle marks. Typical sedimentary successions of high-energy floods include basal coarse parallel-bedded units, large-scale clinoforms, horizontally bedded thin laminated units, ripple and dune cross-beds, silt beds, and debris flow deposits. Such a succession is usually dominated by high concentration suspension rain-outs, representing a single cycle of waxing and waning flood flow. Clay and silt are generally sparse or absent and are transported further down the system. At the scale of the hydrograph, the successions indicate that flows initially accelerate and then decelerate, with significantly shorter periods of flow pulses also evident in the sedimentary signatures.

Key words: high-energy flood, hydrologic characteristics, sedimentological characteristics, typical succession

中图分类号:

P694

王昊, 崔鹏, Paul A.CARLING. 高能洪水沉积研究综述[J]. 地学前缘, 2021, 28(2): 140-167.

WANG Hao, CUI Peng, Paul A.CARLING. The sedimentology of high-energy outburst flood deposits: an overview[J]. Earth Science Frontiers, 2021, 28(2): 140-167.

图/表 13

图1 高能洪水流量过程曲线形态(据文献[8]) a—堰塞湖溃决洪水;b—冰岛型冰湖溃决洪水;c—大型碎冰的短暂阻塞导致的流量脉动;d—复合型洪水流量过程曲线。

Fig.1 Examples of high-energy flood hydrographs. Adapted from [8].

图2 高能洪水典型沉积序列(据文献[8]) a—阿尔泰Little Jaloman巨型沙坝的典型沉积序列(厚8~10 m),包涵6个沉积层序。层序1(S1)为近平行或近水平层理中砾,局部呈块状。层序2(S2)为交错层理,偶现于层序2顶部。层序3(S3)为细砾纹层,发育近平行水平层理,偶夹中砂薄层;单个层序可发育逆粒序,偶尔发育波浪状或者沙垄交错层理以及泥石流沉积填充的透镜体。层序4(S4)由发育低幅交错层理的中砾、细砾和粗砂组成。层序5(S5)为薄粉砂层或者呈块状的砾石薄层。层序6(S6)为泥石流沉积,底部偶现层序5的软沉积变形。b—两次冰岛型冰湖溃决洪水事件的沉积序列。底部GR和G分别代表弱层理细砾和粗砾,对应于层序1和2;GRm对应层序3,由块状构造或者薄层理的细砾组成;GRt为槽状交错层理细砾组成,对应层序4;GRh为水平层理细砾,对应层序5。

Fig.2 Examples of typical succession of high-energy flood deposits. Adapted from [8].

图3 高能洪水巨型沙坝形成位置的平面示意图(据文献[111]) a—扩展型沙坝,发育于河道突然展宽,水流动力减弱处;b—点坝,类似“正常”水流,出现在河流凸岸;c—涡流坝,发育于河道边缘的山地凹陷处和高能洪水淹没的支流河口位置;d—吊坠型沙坝,出现在基岩岛屿等河心障碍物的下游位置。

Fig.3 Planview cartoons of typical bar forming locations. Adapted from [111].

图4 高能洪水砾石丘与巨型沙坝的典型案例 a—郎县雅鲁藏布江的涡流沙坝,发育于山谷内凹处;b—加查县计村雅鲁藏布江涡流沙坝,出现在支流河谷中;c—美国昆西市附近密苏拉形成的巨型砾石丘,该砾石丘向下游迁移;d—阿尔泰库雷盆地—堰塞湖库区,盆地内中央的孤山迫使水流出现绕流,砾石丘向上游迁移。

Fig.4 Examples of typical gravel dunes and giant bars

图5 高能洪水典型沉积序列的底部粗粒平行层理 a—巴塘县金沙江高能洪水底部粗粒层序,由弱层理巨砾组成,下伏基岩;b—郎县雅鲁藏布江堆巴村巨型沙坝底部粗粒层序,主要由平行层理粗砾组成,含巨砾;c—巴塘县金沙江上覆于滑坡堆积体的高能洪水沉积,顶部为具有一定风选的粗粒沉积物,可能为洪水过程中侧岸滑坡的产物;d—阿尔泰山Komdodj巨型沙坝的底部序列,以低角度倾向下游;e—阿尔泰山Komdodj巨型沙坝,底部为分选很好的水平层理细砾,上覆发育弱层理的厚层粗砾沉积(磨圆差),后者可能为滑坡成因。图d,e来自文献[8],箭头代表水流方向(与河流流向不同)。

Fig.5 Examples of typical basal coarse parallel-bedded sequences

图6 高能洪水典型大型斜坡沉积 a—虎跳峡大具盆地的砾石斜坡沉积:前积层,倾向金沙江右岸,可见大量巨砾;b—大具盆地地表砾石斜坡沉积:前积层,局部呈骨架结构,倾向金沙江右岸,可见大量巨砾;c—奔子栏瓦卡村金沙江高能洪水主流区边缘的斜坡沉积,由平行层理中砾-粗砾组成,部分砾石具有一定磨圆度,倾向金沙江下游方向,下伏冲洪积扇体,图中标尺代表竖直方向;d—阿尔泰山支流——Little Jaloman中发育的砂质细砾斜坡沉积,倾向支流上游方向;e—林芝鲁朗堰塞湖水下扇三角洲前积层。图d来自文献[8],箭头代表水流方向(可能与河流流向不同)。

Fig.6 Examples of typical large-scale clinoforms

图7 高能洪水典型水平纹层 a—奔子栏瓦卡村金沙江高能洪水形成的水平纹层,部分纹层发育正粒序,不同纹层成突变接触,但可见侵蚀接触;b—逆粒序水平层理纹层或者弱波浪状水平层理,纹层底部为细砂,向上递变为细砾或细中砾;c—金沙江大具盆地弱水平纹层,由细砾及粗砂组成,层理近观比较模糊,单个层理呈块状,未见明显粒序;d—雅鲁藏布江郎县台地的水平纹层,发育正粒序,可见大量的“漂浮”的孤立粗砾,部分粗砾聚集呈团簇状;e—雅鲁藏布江藏木乡水平层理高能洪水沉积,由中砾及粗砾组成,可见固结很好的古土壤团块;f—雅鲁藏布江郎县台地的粗砂水平纹层,可见细砾的薄层夹层。图b来自文献[8],箭头代表水流方向(可能与河流流向不同)。

Fig.7 Examples of typical horizontally-bedded lamination

图8 高能洪水波纹和沙垄交错纹层 a—粗砂和细砾颗粒形成的板状交错层理,交错层理厚10~20 cm,上覆薄层水平层理或者低角度倾斜的细砂或者粉砂质,两者组成1个层系,单层系侧向展布差,出现尖灭,图中发育约4个层系,应是沙垄迁移的产物;b—迁移相位爬升波纹,由细砂或粉砂组成,证明悬浮质沉降速率较快,上覆于图a沙垄交错层理;c—雅鲁藏布江朗县尼米达高能洪水巨型点坝,由8个沉积韵律组成,每个韵律层包含数十个图a中的沙垄交错层理组成的层系,韵律层顶部为图b所示的细砂或粉砂层(水平层理或波纹层理);d—大具盆地高能洪水顶部的交错层理,由单体沙垄形成,地表依然可见沙垄的微地貌;e—博纳维尔高能洪水Walters Butte巨型沙坝中的槽状交错层理。图e来自文献[8],箭头代表水流方向(可能与河流流向不同)。

Fig.8 Examples of typical ripple and dune cross-lamination

图9 高能洪水粉砂层和泥石流沉积 a—阿尔泰Kezek-Jala 巨型沙坝,中间位置发育细砂与粉砂层,与下覆斜坡沉积呈侵蚀接触;b—阿尔泰 Little Jaloman巨型沙坝表面的泥石流沉积,下覆水平层理中细砾沉积;c—雅鲁藏布江朗县台地高能洪水沉积表面发育的泥石流沉积,下覆逆粒序的中细砾水平层理。图a,b来自文献[8],箭头指示水流方向(可能与河流流向不同)。

Fig.9 Examples of silt beds and debris flow deposits of high-energy flood

图10 高能洪水沉积典型沉积特征 a—大具盆地高能洪水沉积,由中细砾颗粒组成,整体呈块状,仔细观察可发现粗-细层理变化,但因层合并现象层理非常模糊;b—水平或者平行层理中细砾形成的韵律层,单层理包括底部颗粒支撑结构的逆粒序厚层中细砾物质和上部极薄的细砂层;c—雅鲁藏布江高能洪水沉积中的“漂浮”巨砾,发育于水平层理细砾或粗砂中的彗星状凹槽中,可见明显侵蚀面,是漂浮巨砾扰动近床水流的产物;d—细砾水平层理中孤立发育的粗粒片岩碎屑;e—高能洪水沉积中出现的湖相碎屑-内碎屑,湖相团块发生破碎,中粗砾颗粒突刺进入裂缝,指示快速的沉积过程;f—巴基斯坦Khurdopin冰川堰塞湖溃决洪水搬运大型碎冰至下游搁浅,融化后形成的锅穴,大型碎冰的阻挡作用导致其上游侧形成巨砾簇。箭头指示水流方向(可能与河流流向不同)。

Fig.10 Some key sedimentary characteristics of high-energy flood deposits

图11 快速沉积形成的软沉积变形 a—鲁朗堰塞湖扇三角洲沉积,高山沙水流侵蚀水平层理粉砂层形成凹坑,并以细砾和粗砂快速填充;b—图a中快速沉积的细砾与粗砂沉积导致下伏粉砂层产生火焰状软沉积变形。箭头指示水流方向(可能与河流流向不同)。

Fig.11 Soft-sediment deformation due to rapid deposition

图12 浊流沉积鲍马序列与高能洪水沉积的对比(据文献[8,177,204]修改) a—浊流沉积鲍马序列; b—Talling等总结的沉积序列,已基于高能洪水的沉积特征进行修改;c—本文总结的5个高能洪水沉积层序,基于与图1的位置对应关系,因已有顶部泥石流层序的详细论述,但诸多细节尚不清晰,故图c并未涵盖。

Fig.12 Comparison of commonly found sequences within turbidity currents and high-energy flood deposits. Modified after [8,177,204].

图13 支流河谷中巨型沙坝关键层序的形成过程示意图(据文献[8]修改) 该图中包含3个沉积韵律,单韵律层由3个沉积层序组成。水流携带的细砾等悬浮质沉降至快速加积的沙坝表面,接受脉动水流的牵引改造。近水平或平行层理是否为高流态平床(USPBs)依然不清楚。随着洪水消落,席状推移质通过波纹和沙垄等沙床形体的迁移形成交错层理,主要由低流态水流主导。

Fig.13 A model of the formation of key sedimentary facies of a giant bar developed in a tributary valley. Modified after [8].

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